Dracula's head was said to be brought back by the Turks to Constantinople, where Sultan Mehmed, Dracula's old enemy, exhibited it above the city gates: testimony to Allah's triumph over the evil European Empire.
The Ottoman nation would refuse to relinquish their claim to Romania for centuries after this story ends. It would not be until the year 1878 that Romania, with the assistance of the Romanovs of Russia, Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire was able to shake off the Turks for good. "The revival of a Romanian political and national sentiment took place," explains the Romanian Travel Service. "A national bourgeoisie emerged, which struggled for the...unification of the separate states into a single nation...(Romania) was raised to the rank of Kingdom in 1881."
*****
The Countess Ilona was invited by King Matthias to live in the Hungarian Court with her two sons after Dracula's demise. In 1508, Dracula's oldest son, Vlad, made a strike for the throne of Wallachia, but was beaten back by another relative named Mihnea who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Dracula's early days. Probably because he wanted to avoid a scandal that could hurt his mother, Vlad conceded.
If this Mihnea was lying about his bloodline, he certainly did a good job trying to act like the man he claimed was his father. The moment he set his posterior on the throne, the impalings began. But, this time the principality of Wallachia was ready. They rebelled in worthy numbers and the beast they called Mihnea the Bad was sent packing for the hills.
In the meantime, the legitimate Dracula family waned. Only Vlad lived to maturity. Of his two sons, only one married. From that point the number of direct male heirs dwindled. By the mid-1700s, the last of the Draculas was living in (where else?) Transylvania, along the infamous Borgo Pass.
Of Dracula's contemporaries, Matthias Corvinus reigned until 1490, continuing to fight the Turks as well as European Bohemia, which wanted its own king. A Renaissance man, he was a true patron of the arts. Says the Columbia Encyclopedia, "His library at Buda, the Corvina, was one of the finest in Europe."
Stefan Bathory continued to rule Transylvania for some time. His great niece, Elizabeth, was the one who would make history books, however. Countess Bathory, a vain and rather neurotic lady, believed that bathing in blood would preserve her youth. She was proven wrong, but not until she drained more than 300 women of the red stuff. For her endeavors, she was aptly named "Countess Dracula".
*****
Where Dracula is buried is unknown. The friars at Snagov transcribed that they interred him at the foot of the altar in the chapel. But when historical archaeologists in the early 1930s removed the marble slab that was supposed to be covering the Impaler's grave, they encountered an empty six-foot pit that looked like someone at one time may have been buried there. This revelation gave rise to...well, that Dracula may have risen from the grave, after all! Bela Lugosi was still fresh in the mind of the Western World, having just appeared in the black-and-white movie version of the Stoker novel, and headlines had a field day!
Several years later, a headless skeleton was uncovered behind a large stone towards the rear of the church. Because the bones were wrapped in rotting rags that science has proven were once rich-fabric vestments, like those a prince in the 1400s would have worn, many believe that Dracula's earthly remains had been found. One strong argument in their behalf is that the faded cloak covering the shoulders indicates it had once been a vibrant wine red — the royal color of the Dragon's family.
With no better theory to disprove this, the skeleton is considered to this day to be that of the mighty and fearsome Vlad Tepes, Dracula. Researchists here and there aren't convinced and studies for and against continue to be penned.
Tongue in cheek, Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in Dracula — Prince of Many Faces, quip, "The determined vampirists will of course reply that he never died and that his spirit will haunt us perpetually." In fact, they more soberly point to an old Russian Orthodoxy tradition that claims because Dracula "forsook the truth and the light and accepted darkness," he would never rest in peace. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Strange as it might seem to us, a large percentage of peasant stock residing in the Transylvanian Alps still believe in vampires and ghouls that rise from their graves. Religious ceremonies are enacted at certain times of the year, as on Walpurgis Nacht, the Night of the Devil (May 1), when evil is said to have sway over the world.
As Count Dracula tells British solicitor Jonathan Harker in the novel, "This is Transylvania and Transylvania is not England. Our ways are not your ways, and there shall be to you many strange things. Indeed, from what you have told me already, you know what strange things there may be."
Monday, November 16, 2009
Sunday, August 2, 2009
Chungking Investigates Rumors of Shansi Army Surrender
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Chiang regime were in sympathy with this movement and were negotiating secretly with authorities in Shanghai.
Tokyo learned that the Nationalist Chinese had been waiting anxiously for the outcome to Japanese-American negotiations; for there had even been rumors to the effect that Chiang Kai-shek himself would sign a reconciliation with Japan if the United States would but give the word. This statement, according to the Japanese, was attributed to the fact that the Chinese people had suffered through four years of war and were now faced with civil strife. Since the Japanese believed that the Chinese war could have but one ultimate victor, it was only natural for the Chinese to hope that Japan and America would successfully conclude negotiations and that peace between the two Oriental nations might be achieved.[1348]
On October 6, 1941 Tokyo compiled an analysis of a report on the internal conditions of the Chungking forces. This message sent to Washington revealed that Chungking winter offensive of the previous year had failed and that the fourth period of preparations for a spring offensive was underway. In lieu of an out and out frontal attack, it seemed that Chiang Kai-shek was following a special strategy of propaganda to create confusion behind the lines and to promote partisan warfare. According to Japanese reports, the entire front was divided into eleven sectional fronts. The Chungking army consisted of 292 divisions, 200 of these being under direct control of Chiang Kai-shek. Recent investigations by the Japanese army had revealed that of these divisions manpower and equipment had declined 70 to 80%. Special note was made of the deterioration of qualifications for officers based on an examination of 2,500 prisoners. The examination had revealed that 500 had never finished primary education and only 62 of the total were graduates of colleges.[1349]
The survey showed that 1,500,000 recruits were needed annually to replenish the 200 divisions of the first line. Japanese authorities appeared amazed that Chinese front line commanders should have been given false battle reports from Chiang's headquarters. As in many cases these leaders were told that the Japanese army had been damaged excessively. These reports were greatly exaggerated. The Japanese believed that Chinese officers were refusing to obey orders from Chiang Kai-shek. Of 16,200 prisoners who were asked why they were not satisfied with the war of resistance against Japan, it appears that the majority complained of pay difficulties while others believed that the longer they continued resisting Japan, the more susceptible to communism they would become. The fact that there had been an increase of forces surrendering to the Nanking regime only emphasized the fact that Chinese officers were undecided as to the merits of continuing the war of resistance.[1350]
564. Proposal for Four Power Drive Against Japan Is Rejected by Moscow
Another suggestion of the Chungking leader met defeat at the Kremlin when a scheme to use Anglo-American-Soviet meetings in Moscow for disrupting Japanese-Russian relations in order to turn all four nations against Japan was rejected. The Russian Ambassador, Alexander Smenovich Panyushkin, had objected to the publication of an editorial about to be published in a Chungking paper. This editorial had dealt with the promotion of the above-mentioned scheme, and after Ambassador Panyushkin pointed out that it too clearly portrayed the real situation between China and Russia, the article was never published.[1351]
565. Tokyo Analyzes China's Financial Crises
As Tokyo explained the Chinese economic situation on the bases of intelligence summaries in a dispatch to Washington on October 2, there was an urgent need for financial and eco-
[1348] III, 1056.
[1349] III, 1057.
[1350] III, 1058.
[1361] III, 1053.
[275]
nomic assistance to the Chungking government. Since expenditures were expected to reach 15,000,000,000, Japanese analysts predicted that 12,000,000,000 would have to be paid by the banks of China by printing additional tender. Considering the fact that Chinese banks were already expected to issue 5,000,000,000 over the sum currently in circulation, nothing but bankruptcy could possibly result within ten months unless foreign loans were obtained.
The purchase of bonds had not solved the situation, which had been growing steadily worse since April 1941; and as a result, by October 2, the Chiang regime was rapidly putting into effect the following:
(1) "The transference of the finances of the Chiang regime to the capital (this is to be carried out from October; thereafter, all expenses in the province will be met by revenue from the provinces only).
(2) "The collection by the Chungking Government of rice revenue and the payment in kind of rice revenue at the ratio of one yuan to one "sito". Half of the revenue will consist of the unhulled rice. This will go into effect from September 16.
(3) "Issuing of ryo shoku koken (regarding this, the Government will issue an order on September 4 with 30,000,000 goku of stored rice as a basis. The purchase is to be made in installments during a period of five years, 30% by means of legal tender and 70% by means of "koken").
(4) "The establishment of government monopolies, (Sales monopolies of tea, salt, wine, tobacco, sugar, and matches are being planned).
(5) Absorption of funds from Shanghai and Hongkong (the tendency at present is for funds to blow back from the interior)."[1352]
566. United States Representatives Arrive in Chungking to Solve Economic Problems
In support of these negotiations and in the interest of the financial and military position of Chungking, Major General John Magruder, head of the United States Army commission to China, and his party of six arrived in Hongkong from Manila October 5[1353] and flew to Chungking on October 9. Apparently there was a total of thirty representatives, of which thirteen, including British Finance Counselor Hall-Patch, and Special Envoy Chen Kuang-fu, had already arrived by mid-September in Hongkong where they were to be joined by Mr. Fox, the American Financial Adviser to Chiang Kai-shek, and were to meet with the currency delegation commission.
The advance party supposedly had completed arrangements for an observation tour of key industrial and military areas. It was scheduled that, following the tour, some members would remain in Chungking and others would be posted at various fronts for a considerable length of time to keep Chungking authorities advised of practical methods for meeting the critical situation faced by the Nationalist government. In preparation for any crisis these representatives would study military supply as well as Japanese army tactics. In addition, they would assist in improving Chinese air fields. Apparently, shortly after the American party reached Chungking, Russian representatives would also arrive in the Chinese capitol to discuss the possibility of a Japanese attack upon Russia.
Also, in order to discuss all points of the problem of military cooperation with British and American authorities, Chinese representatives were dispatched to the Philippines.[1354]
The presence of Henry Francis Grady, the United States Economic expert and presidential adviser at Hongkong, who on October 10, 1941 was returning to America, had indicated to the Japanese that the United States was investigating methods of obtaining raw materials for military purposes. At this time tungsten and hog bristles, among other materials, were being
[1352] III, 1054.
[1353] III, 1059.
[1354] III, 1060-1061.
[276]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
delivered secretly to Hongkong by airplane as well as being transported along the Tumen Route. Apparently the United States was also planning to send large transport planes of four to seven ton capacity to increase such traffic.[1355]
567. U.S.S. President Coolidge Unloads Troops and Tanks at Unidentified Chinese Port
On October 8, 1941 a circular dispatch originating in Shanghai revealed that a member of the crew of the U.S.S. President Coolidge had stated that his ship had been convoyed by a cruiser and an armed tanker from Manila to an unidentified port in China where they unloaded 54 tanks and 2400 men. According to the Japanese report, local American naval authorities had banned the publication of this activity.
American ships sailing from the United States to Siberia were soon to be armed. Inquiries made by Japanese in Shanghai had divulged that each ship's armament would consist of four 14-centimetre guns and an armed guard crew of one officer and twenty four enlisted men.[1356]
568. Japan Believes American Loan Is Reason for Visit of United States Representatives
On October 9, 1941 Major Philip Cochran, an American representative, accompanied by Sir Otto Niemeyer, director of the Bank of England, arrived in Hongkong by clipper from Manila with three other members of the American military mission who were en route to Chungking.[1357]
According to another Japanese spy report, the purpose of at least one of the visiting American parties was to consider the loan of $200,000,000 to Chungking to bolster Chiang Kai-shek's finances. One group was also to investigate Chungking's financial situation and was to include an English and an American member, cognizant of international treaty policies, to service as financial advisors to the Generalissimo.[1358]
569. Japan Promotes the Establishment of Independent Mohammedan Area
A Peking dispatch on October 8, 1941 revealed that for three years the Nipponese had beer conniving with an influential Mohammedan leader, Ba Tei Ken, from the Kansu and Ninghc area, for the establishment of an armed and completely independent Mohammedan territory Contributions for this project in conjunction with the military authorities were garnered from interested patrons who made payment to Counsellor Watanabe, the Japanese representative in Nanking.[1359]
570. Japan Anticipates Peace on China Front
Having captured the Lunghai Railway and designated it as the border line between North and Central China, Japanese experts reported that by October 7, 1941 they had materially strengthened their control over North China. Not only had they created a greater dependency upon Japan, but by capturing Ting-Chou simultaneously with Changsha they had struck a profound blow to Chungking. With such progress being made, they were convinced that establishment of peace along the entire front was not far from realization. It was also agreed that there would be no withdrawal from the captured territories, as such a move would be giving Chungking material for propaganda.[1360]
[1355] III, 1062.
[1356] III, 1063.
[1357] III, 1064.
[1358] III, 1065.
[1359] III, 1066.
[1360] III, 1067.
[277] [278 blank]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
PART C—JAPANESE DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
(l) Japanese-Nanking Relations
In the months following the official recognition of the Peoples' Government by Germany and the Axis-controlled countries of Europe, Tokyo supervised a reorganization of the political and economic systems then in existence at Nanking.
571. New Bank Notes Pay Custom Taxes
Among the major problems confronting Nanking at this time were the stabilization of its currency and the payment of debts. As a means of partially alleviating this financial condition, on August 8, 1941, the Japanese Finance Bureau ordered that the payment of customs taxes on salt and sugar be made in new bank notes after September 1, 1941. Japan had been continually advocating such a measure; therefore it did not come as a surprise to Chinese officials and no objections were anticipated. In the meantime a committee made other decisions on the future currency policy to be maintained.[1361]
572. Nanking Clarifies Its Duties Toward China Concessions
At the same time that adjustments to the financial status were being effected, the Nanking government sought to clarify its political position in relation to China. On August 12, 1941, officials of the Nanking government requested that the Japanese Foreign Minister define more explicitly Nanking's duties toward Chinese concessions. From their current information the duties connected with the execution of concession policies appeared to be merely auxiliary and were to be performed by the officials in China. Under the rules and regulations of the East Asia Reconstruction Bureau which had been given to Ambassador Nabuyuki Abe, these auxiliary duties came under the supervision of the Japanese Prime Minister and therefore an attempt to interpret them in any but a traditional manner was not permissible.
However, now that the Peoples' Government had received official recognition, the authorities inquired whether Nanking's duties toward Chinese concessions were transferred to the cognizance of the Japanese Foreign Minister. If not, Nanking believed that the East Asia Reconstruction Bureau had been given too much authority in the interpretation of concession responsibilities. Yet, while Tokyo actually formulated Nanking's policies, for all outward appearances, the Peoples' Government appeared to arrive at a decision under is own initiative.[1362]
573. Ambassador Honda Asks to Retain His Present Status
Fearing that the various proposed plans for an overall reorganization of the Peoples' Government would effect his position as Japanese Ambassador to Nanking, Mr. Kumataro Honda requested that Tokyo authorities influence Wang to reconsider any tentative change in his present official status. Because of the close contact he maintained with the developing situation in southern China, Ambassador Honda believed that he would be of more immediate value to Nanking if allowed to remain on duty in China.
In transmitting the record of this conversation to Nanking on August 14, 1941, the Japanese official in Tokyo pointed out that Ambassador Honda would be difficult to replace in the Japanese government. Therefore, if Ambassador Honda could be used effectively in the revised administrational set-up of Nanking, it was requested that he not be transferred. At
[1361] III, 1068.
[1362] III, 1069.
[279]
the same time, however, Tokyo realized that if President Wang Ching-wei considered the matter past reconsideration, then Ambassador Honda was not to agitate for reinstatement through other sources.[1363]
The afternoon of August 14, 1941 President Wang stated his decision regarding Ambassador Honda's position by explaining that any change in the administrative system inevitably necessitated a transfer of certain Foreign Office officials. No one would be replaced until definite replies of acceptance were received from respective successors. However, it was definite that Ambassador Honda would be reclassified in accordance with the new policies set forth by the Peoples' Government.[1364]
574. Japanese Offices in Central China Received New Code
During these governmental changes in Japanese controlled China, it was particularly important that security precautions be strengthened and strictly enforced. In order to supply various Japanese offices in Central China with the new Yoo code, Secretary Nishida of the Japanese Embassy at Nanking sailed aboard the Yawata Maru from Kobe on August 18, 1941. After arriving at Shanghai where Japanese officials were to facilitate his passage through the customs inspection, Mr. Nishida planned to spend several days there explaining the use of the new code system to the telegraphic office.[1365]
575. Nanking Fears Interception of Its Messages by Chungking
Japanese awareness of the necessity for safeguarding their communications was further evidenced on August 20, 1941. Fearing that their defective code system increased the danger of Chungking's interception and decryption of messages, Nanking proposed that its use be discontinued between Tokyo and Nanking. Instead, all telegraphic communications were to be sent simply in the customary telegraphic systems.
Meanwhile, the Japanese Foreign Office and the Minister of Communications conferred on the settlement of all problems connected with the transmission of code messages.[1366]
576. Nanking Army Refuses to Interfere with Problem Concerning Custom Officials
A few days later, on August 22, 1941, a political problem, undoubtedly proving the necessity for this increased security consciousness involved the Peoples' Government at Nanking. Apparently, the Nanking army had been offered some voice in the personnel questions affecting Japanese custom officials. But the Nanking Army Headquarters wired the North China army that in view of the present international situation, it preferred to leave such problems to Foreign Office officials. Therefore, the army was not to establish any group within the Special Affairs organization for the purpose of supervising customs.
Regarding the appointment of customs authorities, Nanking did offer one suggestion. Relying on information previously obtained from Peking, an official of the Peoples' Government proposed the exchange of Itaro Ishii and Mr. Koyamada in their respective positions.[1367]
577. Japan Negotiates Peace Terms with Shansi Army
About this same time Japan was concerned with another situation in which the political and military aspects were greatly related. In the early summer of 1941 the Peoples' Government conducted negotiations for the surrender of the Shansi army and the transfer of its allegiance from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's forces to those of Japan. However by
[1363] III, 1070.
[1364] III, 1071.
[1365] III, 1072.
[1366] III, 1073.
[1367] III, 1074.
[280]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
August 22, 1941, preparations for the terms of the peace treaty were still largely in the preliminary stages.
Nevertheless, the Japanese official in Peking, Mr. K. Hayashi, informed Tokyo that Mr. Yen Hsi-shan, Chief of the Military Commission and head of the Shansi army wished to sign an agreement with Japanese forces without delay. To complete the many necessary details, Mr. Tuchida, Staff Officer of the Japanese First Army, had arrived in Enan in the Shansi Province on August 19, 1941 in order to confer with the Chief of Staff Tsukiyama. Mr. Yen Hsi-shan was particularly anxious to complete negotiations with Japan because his faction had already severed connections with the central military authorities, and as a result about 10,000 troops of the Southern China Army had invaded territory under his domain.[1368]
578. Nanking Requests a Military Allotment from Japan
To meet the growing requirements for a standing army of its own, Nanking realized it would be necessary to obtain funds for training and equipment. Japan originally proposed extending a yearly allotment to the newly organized National government. Since the Nanking government lacked both military establishments for the proper training of its officers and sufficient weapons, President Wang suggested that the allotment for 1941 be used chiefly in alleviating these military deficiencies.[1369] Therefore, Nanking requested a 50,000,000 yen loan to cover the supply of military equipment. Although Major General Sadaaki Kagesa, acting Japanese military adviser, reduced the proposed loan to 10,000,000 yen before submitting it to the Foreign office through the General Army, he was in favor of using the money in this manner.[1370]
579. Japanese Consul Generals in China to Meet in Conference
In view of these numerous developments affecting Japanese-occupied China, the Foreign Minister initiated preparations for a conference of the Japanese Consul-Generals in China. That a definite date might be set for the meeting, Shanghai wired Tokyo on August 26, 1941 for further information. Unless more urgent matters interfered, Shanghai further suggested that an intelligence meeting, to be held about September 20, supplement the conference of the Consul-Generals.[1371]
The following day Minister Shinero Kuro Hidaka informed the head of the East Asia Bureau that the business and intelligence meeting was tentatively scheduled, pending the approval of the directors, for September 24 through September 26, 1941, in Nanking. After discussing the advisability of this meeting with the China Affairs Board, the director of the East Asia Bureau was expected to communicate with Minister Hidaka.[1372]
580. Japan Freezes Foreign Currency in Chinese Reserve Bank
One of the chief problems existing between Japan and the sections of China under its control evolved from a Japanese order freezing foreign currency in the Chinese Reserve Bank. To exchange the frozen funds into special yen currency would necessarily affect the reserve holding in the Japanese National Treasury since it would mean Japan's making good any loss the Chinese suffered by it. Therefore, on August 30, 1941 Tokyo definitely stated that no action would be taken to rescind the freezing measure.
Nevertheless, the Japanese government realized that unless some of the conditions arising out of the freezing order were alleviated, the reserve bank's credit would suffer and its oper-
[1368] III, 1075.
[1369] III, 1076.
[1370] III, 1077.
[1371] III, 1078.
[1372] III, 1079.
[281]
ations might cease. Therefore, the officials of the Chinese Reserve Bank planned to confer on methods of relieving the situation.[1373] However, Japan was aware that the question could not be entirely settled by such a meeting since Tokyo officials desired to turn the problem into a situation advantageous to their own government. Furthermore on August 30, 1941 it was suggested that Nanking use this opportunity to force China to institute policies of exchange and loans which would increase its cooperation with, and dependency upon, Japan.[1374]
581. Shanghai Restrictions on Gasoline Impede Japanese Military Transportation
At the same time that it began strict enforcement of this freezing order against China, Japan was suffering under a similar measure imposed upon it by Shanghai officials. Before the order freezing Japanese assets and the passage of strict export rules had been put into effect at Shanghai, the Nanking Petroleum Guild purchased refined gasoline from the Shanghai Foreign Oil Dealers for distribution to Chinese and Japanese military officials and civilians. However, beginning August 28, 1941, the oil dealers prohibited the sale of Shanghai gasoline for redistribution to the interior with the result that Nanking's supply of petroleum was estimated to be sufficient for only one month.
Because this order impeded the transportation of principal commodities throughout occupied China, Nanking officials informed Tokyo on August 30, 1941 that in cooperation with military authorities, the Peoples' Government considered effecting counter-measures against Shanghai. In order to carry out such measures successfully, Nanking asked the Foreign Minister to inform the East Asia Development Company in central China regarding the existing situation.[1375]
582. Berlin Appoints German Officials in China
It was particularly important during this period of economic and political crisis that Japan reinforce its diplomatic relations with Germany. After Berlin's official recognition of Nanking, the German government and the Japanese Embassy conferred on the appointment of Germans to serve as honorary Chinese consuls and on the protection of German nationals in China. On September 1, 1941 the German Charge in Nanking informed Minister Hidaka of this discussion.[1376]
583. Shanghai Sets Date for Intelligence Meeting
With this steady progression of international affairs reaching a peak in September, Shanghai sent a dispatch to Tokyo on September 3, 1941 definitely scheduling a date for the Japanese intelligence meeting,[1377] which had been previously set for September 20, 1941.[1378] In order that the special intelligence official being sent from Moscow might attend, the meeting was to be held from September 29 to October 2, 1941.[1379]
A few days later on September 5, 1941, Mr. Hiroshi Hori sent word to Counselor Tashiro that the Consul Generals from Manchukuo, Tientsin, Peking, Hankow, Canton, Hongkong, Nanking and Shanghai would attend this intelligence meeting.[1380]
[1373] III, 1080.
[1374] III, 1081.
[1375] III, 1082.
[1376] III, 1083.
[1377] III, 1084.
[1378] III, 1078.
[1379] III, 1084.
[1380] III, 1085.
[282]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
584. Japanese Official Observes Conditions in North China
In the meantime Mr. Chu Min-yi, Nanking's Minister of Foreign Affairs, stopped at several cities in occupied China, including Tientsin and Peking, in order to report on the existing conditions in northern China when he returned to Japan, where he was unofficially connected with the Embassy. While on this trip, Minister Chu Min-yi was scheduled to visit Commander Okamura and possibly Director Shiozawa. Therefore on September 4, 1941, Nanking requested that the military authorities and liaison officials of the East Asia Development Company be instructed to assist him.[1381]
585. Japan Seeks Ratification of Treaty with Shansi Army
With preparations underway for meetings to consolidate Japan's political hold over its positions in China, the agreement confirming the surrender and incorporation of the Shansi army into the Nanking puppet forces neared completion. Secret information forwarded from Mr. Sakuji Hayashi on September 5, 1941, revealed that in order to clarify the understanding and to have it ratified, representatives of the Japanese and Shansi forces were to confer on September 8, 1941. Colonel Tadeo Hongo of the North China army, leaving for Taigen on September 11, 1941, was scheduled to present the details of the agreement.[1382]
Shortly after this conference, a dispatch to Tokyo disclosed that Mr. Matsutaro Tanabe, Chief of the General Staff of the Japanese North China Army, Mr. Sigezaki and Mr. Tsukiyama, Staff officers of the Japanese First Army, Mr. Tsuchida, Mr. Hayashi and the Governor of the Shansi Province had assembled to discuss the final plans with Shansi army officials represented by Mr. Chao Chen-shou. But in spite of the efforts made to reach a satisfactory arrangement at that time, numerous problems requiring settlement by a specially designated committee of Japanese and Chinese experts prevented the signing of a definite treaty. Questions involving the Northwestern Business concern and the Do Ho Railway were pending. More important still was the request of the Shansi army to have their forces increased to approximately 300,000 or more men fully equipped with military supplies and with funds.[1383]
However, since Japan intended to use this Chinese army mainly for its political rather than its military significance, it was doubtful if the Shansi forces would ever be actually re-enforced. For Japanese purposes the value of the proposed treaty lay in the effect it would have on both Mr. Yu Hsueh Chung, Governor of the Hopeh Province and member of the military commission of the Nationalist government, and on Mr. Fu Tsuo I, Chairman of the Suiyuan Province and Commander of the 37th Chinese division. Tokyo further hoped that the surrender of the Shansi army and its adoption of Japanese policies would influence the Chinese traders who had financial interests in the Shansi Province.[1384]
In view of Japan's motives, Japanese officials requested that Mr. Yen Hsi-shan formally announce the break with Chungking and the signing of the armistice agreement with Japan. But until the Shansi army had been distributed into the various sections to unite with Japanese forces and until the problems of the Central and Eighth Route armies had been settled, Mr. Yen Hsi-shan refused to publicize the forthcoming treaty.[1385]
Although the terms of the final agreement had not been decided upon, the Nanking government on September 12, 1941 informed Tokyo that over 1,000,000 yuan would be disbursed to the Shansi army. If this force went to war with China, President Wang Ching-wei intended to grant Commander Yen Hsi-shan the position of Chairman of the Military Council and Vice-Chief of the Nanking government.[1386]
[1381] III, 1086.
[1382] III, 1087.
[1383] III, 1088.
[1384] Ibid.
[1385] Ibid.
[1386] III, 1089.
[283]
586. Japan Extends Loan for Central China Operations
As negotiations with the Shansi army achieved satisfactory results, Tokyo meanwhile became concerned with other operations in China. After studying the expenditures necessary for central China, on September 9, 1941, the Japanese government decided to extend a 30,000,000 yen loan. Funds were obtained from foreign loans and reparation moneys that had been accumulating in the six affiliated banks in northern China since March 30, 1941 when Japan established the National government in Nanking. Although definite conditions for drawing on these funds were to be decided for each separate case, the Yokohama Specie Bank was responsible for lending the money. That part of the foreign loan money which was accumulated through the Shanghai Maritime Customs was held in Chinese currency as a special reserve fund of the six banks.[1387]
587. Japanese Official Reviews Chinese Reserve Bank Problem
Because of the large amount of money used in the extension of its war with China and the distribution of loans to Japanese-subsidized China, the Tokyo government realized the necessity of maintaining financial stability. For that reason, the problems arising from the freezing of the foreign currency in the Chinese Reserve Bank were given careful consideration.[1388] The delay in the business dealings of their bank inconvenienced the completion of Japanese transactions as well. Therefore, on September 11, 1941, Mr. Kazaro Aoki, the economic adviser to the Japanese Embassy at Nanking, went to Shanghai in order to check the effectiveness and adaptability of the proposed settlement plans. The East Asia Development Bureau was kept informed of all developments.[1389]
588. Nanking Ambassador to Leave for Post in Germany
While Nanking's economic and military problems occupied much of Japan's attention during this period, its diplomatic affairs were not neglected. As a result of the international situation, and by an agreement with the British government, Japan dispatched the Asama Maru from Yokohama on September 20, 1941 to pick up Japanese evacuees from Europe. Since the ship stopped at Lisbon, Tokyo seized this opportunity to suggest that Mr. Li Sheng-wu, Nanking's newly-appointed Ambassador to Germany, and his official party take passage aboard this ship.[1390] But the Asama Maru was not scheduled to dock at Shanghai; therefore, on September 9, 1941, the Japanese government advised that the Nanking Ambassador be prepared to embark at an appointed port.[1391]
Certain complications arose when Japan realized that in order to reach their posts in Germany and Italy from the port at Lisbon, the Nanking officials must necessarily pass through countries which had not recognized this Japanese state. For that reason Nanking became concerned over the possible difficulty of securing the proper visas.[1392]
Mr. Li Sheng-wu was apparently not ready to leave Nanking at this time. Therefore, on September 12, 1941, Nanking wired Tokyo that only members of the Ambassador's staff would sail aboard the Asama Maru.[1393]
[1387] III, 1090.
[1388] III, 1080-1081.
[1389] III, 1091.
[1390] III, 1092-1093.
[1391] III, 1093.
[1392] III, 1094.
[1393] III. 1095.
[284]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
589. Japan Concerned over Delay in Appointing Nanking Ambassador to Italy
Since these preparations were underway for sending the new Nanking Ambassador to Berlin, Mr. Yoshiro Ando, a counselor at the Japanese Embassy in Rome on September 12, 1941 called on Mr. Prunas, a member of the Italian Foreign Office, to inquire about Italy's delay in approving the appointment of a Nanking Ambassador. In reply Mr. Prunas blamed the numerous details relating to the establishment of the New Order in Europe. Furthermore, he assured Mr. Ando that the Italian government had no objections to such an appointment and would act on the matter immediately.[1394]
Apparently, however, no action had been taken by September 16, 1941; for on that date Nanking asked that Tokyo use its influence in procuring the necessary agreement with Rome in order that the new ambassador might sail with other officials of the People's Government aboard the Asama Maru.[1395]
The evening of September 17, 1941 the Japanese Foreign Office received a confidential report from the Italian government. Although the appointment was yet to be confirmed by the political council, Mr. Go Gai Sei[1396] would probably be named as Nanking Ambassador to Italy.[1397]
590. Berlin Appoints German Officials to Nanking
While Nanking arranged for the establishment of embassies in countries recognizing its government, the Axis nations reciprocated by sending diplomatic officials to Nanking. Since a regular German Ambassador could not be sent in the immediate future, on September 16, 1941, the Berlin government announced the appointment of Mr. Fischer as a German Charge d'Affaires.[1398] Although it was anticipated that a regular German Ambassador would not be stationed in Nanking for many months, on September 23, 1941, Tokyo disclosed that Mr. Henrich D. Stahmer expected to be given that position. In a discussion with Mr. Shun-ichi Kase, Mr. Stahmer stated that as soon as the necessary arrangements were effected, Berlin would publicize this decision.[1399]
591. Nanking Ambassador Delays Trip to Germany
Yet if Germany's official diplomatic relations with the Peoples' Government apparently progressed ahead of schedule, this did not hold true of Nanking's plans. Unforeseen circumstances forced the Nanking Ambassador to delay his own trip. Therefore, on September 25, 1941, Mr. Li Shen-wu informed Mr. M. Fischer, the German Charge d'Affaires, that for the time being a secretary was being sent to act in the capacity of commercial attache in Berlin.[1400]
However, in order to complete plans for the departure of other Nanking officials to Germany on September 25, 1941, Nanking asked to be kept informed of the Asama Maru's sailing schedule from Yokohama.[1401] By October 1, 1941, Nanking had completed the list of reservations that it desired to make aboard the ship. The diplomatic staff to be aboard included Minister Li and his daughter, Secretaries Tang and Feng accompanied by their families, and several other secretaries and attendants.[1402]
[1394] III, 1096.
[1395] III, 1097.
[1396] Kana Spelling.
[1397] III, 1098.
[1398] III, 1099.
[1399] III, 1100.
[1400] III, 1101.
[1401] III, 1102.
[1402] III, 1103.
[285]
592. President Wang Seeks Information on Japanese-American Relations
Although its activities were closely allied with and dependent upon these Axis-dominated countries, Nanking did not lose sight of the important effect that the Japanese-American situation would have on the Peoples' Government. For that reason when requested for an interview which would undoubtedly entail a discussion of these relations, President Wang asked Tokyo for advice regarding the attitude to be adopted. Mr. Wang recalled that Prime Minister Konoye had been pessimistic because of the unpromising turn in diplomacy. However, by the end of September, 1941, Mr. Wang hoped that subsequent developments had thrown a new light on the existing problems.
Particularly interesting to President Wang was the United States' stand on the Chinese incident. When interviewed, Mr. Wang insisted that his government did not object to United States' participation in a settlement of the Japanese-Chinese war providing that its peace proposals did not aim at the overthrow of Japan's New Order in East Asia.[1403]
593. Germany Appoints Pro-Japanese Diplomats in China
Meanwhile, Nanking-German diplomacy became increasingly favorable and by October 2, 1941, Berlin had chosen a new staff of pro-Japanese diplomats to serve in occupied China. As had been expected,[1404] Mr. Stahmer was appointed Ambassador to Nanking upon the personal recommendation of Chancellor Adolph Hitler who believed him capable of complete cooperation with Japan. Although engaged in diplomatic work since the establishment of the Ribbentrop office, the present appointment was Ambassador Stahmer's first as a foreign diplomat.
Because of his enthusiasm for the Tripartite alliance, Ambassador Stahmer was anxious to suppress the old type of German diplomat in China. However, certain officials believed that the type of German diplomacy previously characterizing relations with China was deep rooted and therefore would clash with the newly-appointed ambassador. Possibly for that reason, the German government chose other well-established officials to work with Ambassador Stahmer in administrating German affairs in Nanking. Mr. Erich Boltze, former counselor to the German Embassy in Tokyo, and Mr. Johannes Borchers, former Consul-General in New York, were transferred to the Embassy in China. Mr. M. Fischer became the German Consul-General in Shanghai.[1405]
594. Tokyo Arranges Reception for Nanking Officials Going Abroad
In order to raise the prestige of those Nanking officials reporting to their Embassies abroad, the Peoples' Government arranged with Tokyo on October 3, 1941 for a special reception to be given before the sailing of the Asama Maru.[1406]
Since the sailing schedule of the Asama Maru remained indefinite,[1407] the Japanese anticipated several days in which to continue instructing the Nanking staff on their duties in foreign countries.[1408]
595. Chungking Investigates Rumors of Shansi Army Surrender
Despite the efforts of the Shansi army to keep secret its peace negotiations with the Japanese forces, an intelligence report transmitted from Shanghai on October 13, 1941 revealed that the Chungking military committee was sending five spies to investigate the rumors that Commander Yen Hsi-shan had transferred his allegiance to the Nanking government. These spies were prepared to enter Nanking secretly by way of Hongkong and Shanghai.[1409] Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
[1403] III, 1104.
[1404] III, 1100.
[1405] III, 1105.
[1406] III, 1106.
[1407] III, 1107.
[1408] III, 1106.
[1409] III, 1108.
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Chiang regime were in sympathy with this movement and were negotiating secretly with authorities in Shanghai.
Tokyo learned that the Nationalist Chinese had been waiting anxiously for the outcome to Japanese-American negotiations; for there had even been rumors to the effect that Chiang Kai-shek himself would sign a reconciliation with Japan if the United States would but give the word. This statement, according to the Japanese, was attributed to the fact that the Chinese people had suffered through four years of war and were now faced with civil strife. Since the Japanese believed that the Chinese war could have but one ultimate victor, it was only natural for the Chinese to hope that Japan and America would successfully conclude negotiations and that peace between the two Oriental nations might be achieved.[1348]
On October 6, 1941 Tokyo compiled an analysis of a report on the internal conditions of the Chungking forces. This message sent to Washington revealed that Chungking winter offensive of the previous year had failed and that the fourth period of preparations for a spring offensive was underway. In lieu of an out and out frontal attack, it seemed that Chiang Kai-shek was following a special strategy of propaganda to create confusion behind the lines and to promote partisan warfare. According to Japanese reports, the entire front was divided into eleven sectional fronts. The Chungking army consisted of 292 divisions, 200 of these being under direct control of Chiang Kai-shek. Recent investigations by the Japanese army had revealed that of these divisions manpower and equipment had declined 70 to 80%. Special note was made of the deterioration of qualifications for officers based on an examination of 2,500 prisoners. The examination had revealed that 500 had never finished primary education and only 62 of the total were graduates of colleges.[1349]
The survey showed that 1,500,000 recruits were needed annually to replenish the 200 divisions of the first line. Japanese authorities appeared amazed that Chinese front line commanders should have been given false battle reports from Chiang's headquarters. As in many cases these leaders were told that the Japanese army had been damaged excessively. These reports were greatly exaggerated. The Japanese believed that Chinese officers were refusing to obey orders from Chiang Kai-shek. Of 16,200 prisoners who were asked why they were not satisfied with the war of resistance against Japan, it appears that the majority complained of pay difficulties while others believed that the longer they continued resisting Japan, the more susceptible to communism they would become. The fact that there had been an increase of forces surrendering to the Nanking regime only emphasized the fact that Chinese officers were undecided as to the merits of continuing the war of resistance.[1350]
564. Proposal for Four Power Drive Against Japan Is Rejected by Moscow
Another suggestion of the Chungking leader met defeat at the Kremlin when a scheme to use Anglo-American-Soviet meetings in Moscow for disrupting Japanese-Russian relations in order to turn all four nations against Japan was rejected. The Russian Ambassador, Alexander Smenovich Panyushkin, had objected to the publication of an editorial about to be published in a Chungking paper. This editorial had dealt with the promotion of the above-mentioned scheme, and after Ambassador Panyushkin pointed out that it too clearly portrayed the real situation between China and Russia, the article was never published.[1351]
565. Tokyo Analyzes China's Financial Crises
As Tokyo explained the Chinese economic situation on the bases of intelligence summaries in a dispatch to Washington on October 2, there was an urgent need for financial and eco-
[1348] III, 1056.
[1349] III, 1057.
[1350] III, 1058.
[1361] III, 1053.
[275]
nomic assistance to the Chungking government. Since expenditures were expected to reach 15,000,000,000, Japanese analysts predicted that 12,000,000,000 would have to be paid by the banks of China by printing additional tender. Considering the fact that Chinese banks were already expected to issue 5,000,000,000 over the sum currently in circulation, nothing but bankruptcy could possibly result within ten months unless foreign loans were obtained.
The purchase of bonds had not solved the situation, which had been growing steadily worse since April 1941; and as a result, by October 2, the Chiang regime was rapidly putting into effect the following:
(1) "The transference of the finances of the Chiang regime to the capital (this is to be carried out from October; thereafter, all expenses in the province will be met by revenue from the provinces only).
(2) "The collection by the Chungking Government of rice revenue and the payment in kind of rice revenue at the ratio of one yuan to one "sito". Half of the revenue will consist of the unhulled rice. This will go into effect from September 16.
(3) "Issuing of ryo shoku koken (regarding this, the Government will issue an order on September 4 with 30,000,000 goku of stored rice as a basis. The purchase is to be made in installments during a period of five years, 30% by means of legal tender and 70% by means of "koken").
(4) "The establishment of government monopolies, (Sales monopolies of tea, salt, wine, tobacco, sugar, and matches are being planned).
(5) Absorption of funds from Shanghai and Hongkong (the tendency at present is for funds to blow back from the interior)."[1352]
566. United States Representatives Arrive in Chungking to Solve Economic Problems
In support of these negotiations and in the interest of the financial and military position of Chungking, Major General John Magruder, head of the United States Army commission to China, and his party of six arrived in Hongkong from Manila October 5[1353] and flew to Chungking on October 9. Apparently there was a total of thirty representatives, of which thirteen, including British Finance Counselor Hall-Patch, and Special Envoy Chen Kuang-fu, had already arrived by mid-September in Hongkong where they were to be joined by Mr. Fox, the American Financial Adviser to Chiang Kai-shek, and were to meet with the currency delegation commission.
The advance party supposedly had completed arrangements for an observation tour of key industrial and military areas. It was scheduled that, following the tour, some members would remain in Chungking and others would be posted at various fronts for a considerable length of time to keep Chungking authorities advised of practical methods for meeting the critical situation faced by the Nationalist government. In preparation for any crisis these representatives would study military supply as well as Japanese army tactics. In addition, they would assist in improving Chinese air fields. Apparently, shortly after the American party reached Chungking, Russian representatives would also arrive in the Chinese capitol to discuss the possibility of a Japanese attack upon Russia.
Also, in order to discuss all points of the problem of military cooperation with British and American authorities, Chinese representatives were dispatched to the Philippines.[1354]
The presence of Henry Francis Grady, the United States Economic expert and presidential adviser at Hongkong, who on October 10, 1941 was returning to America, had indicated to the Japanese that the United States was investigating methods of obtaining raw materials for military purposes. At this time tungsten and hog bristles, among other materials, were being
[1352] III, 1054.
[1353] III, 1059.
[1354] III, 1060-1061.
[276]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
delivered secretly to Hongkong by airplane as well as being transported along the Tumen Route. Apparently the United States was also planning to send large transport planes of four to seven ton capacity to increase such traffic.[1355]
567. U.S.S. President Coolidge Unloads Troops and Tanks at Unidentified Chinese Port
On October 8, 1941 a circular dispatch originating in Shanghai revealed that a member of the crew of the U.S.S. President Coolidge had stated that his ship had been convoyed by a cruiser and an armed tanker from Manila to an unidentified port in China where they unloaded 54 tanks and 2400 men. According to the Japanese report, local American naval authorities had banned the publication of this activity.
American ships sailing from the United States to Siberia were soon to be armed. Inquiries made by Japanese in Shanghai had divulged that each ship's armament would consist of four 14-centimetre guns and an armed guard crew of one officer and twenty four enlisted men.[1356]
568. Japan Believes American Loan Is Reason for Visit of United States Representatives
On October 9, 1941 Major Philip Cochran, an American representative, accompanied by Sir Otto Niemeyer, director of the Bank of England, arrived in Hongkong by clipper from Manila with three other members of the American military mission who were en route to Chungking.[1357]
According to another Japanese spy report, the purpose of at least one of the visiting American parties was to consider the loan of $200,000,000 to Chungking to bolster Chiang Kai-shek's finances. One group was also to investigate Chungking's financial situation and was to include an English and an American member, cognizant of international treaty policies, to service as financial advisors to the Generalissimo.[1358]
569. Japan Promotes the Establishment of Independent Mohammedan Area
A Peking dispatch on October 8, 1941 revealed that for three years the Nipponese had beer conniving with an influential Mohammedan leader, Ba Tei Ken, from the Kansu and Ninghc area, for the establishment of an armed and completely independent Mohammedan territory Contributions for this project in conjunction with the military authorities were garnered from interested patrons who made payment to Counsellor Watanabe, the Japanese representative in Nanking.[1359]
570. Japan Anticipates Peace on China Front
Having captured the Lunghai Railway and designated it as the border line between North and Central China, Japanese experts reported that by October 7, 1941 they had materially strengthened their control over North China. Not only had they created a greater dependency upon Japan, but by capturing Ting-Chou simultaneously with Changsha they had struck a profound blow to Chungking. With such progress being made, they were convinced that establishment of peace along the entire front was not far from realization. It was also agreed that there would be no withdrawal from the captured territories, as such a move would be giving Chungking material for propaganda.[1360]
[1355] III, 1062.
[1356] III, 1063.
[1357] III, 1064.
[1358] III, 1065.
[1359] III, 1066.
[1360] III, 1067.
[277] [278 blank]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
PART C—JAPANESE DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
(l) Japanese-Nanking Relations
In the months following the official recognition of the Peoples' Government by Germany and the Axis-controlled countries of Europe, Tokyo supervised a reorganization of the political and economic systems then in existence at Nanking.
571. New Bank Notes Pay Custom Taxes
Among the major problems confronting Nanking at this time were the stabilization of its currency and the payment of debts. As a means of partially alleviating this financial condition, on August 8, 1941, the Japanese Finance Bureau ordered that the payment of customs taxes on salt and sugar be made in new bank notes after September 1, 1941. Japan had been continually advocating such a measure; therefore it did not come as a surprise to Chinese officials and no objections were anticipated. In the meantime a committee made other decisions on the future currency policy to be maintained.[1361]
572. Nanking Clarifies Its Duties Toward China Concessions
At the same time that adjustments to the financial status were being effected, the Nanking government sought to clarify its political position in relation to China. On August 12, 1941, officials of the Nanking government requested that the Japanese Foreign Minister define more explicitly Nanking's duties toward Chinese concessions. From their current information the duties connected with the execution of concession policies appeared to be merely auxiliary and were to be performed by the officials in China. Under the rules and regulations of the East Asia Reconstruction Bureau which had been given to Ambassador Nabuyuki Abe, these auxiliary duties came under the supervision of the Japanese Prime Minister and therefore an attempt to interpret them in any but a traditional manner was not permissible.
However, now that the Peoples' Government had received official recognition, the authorities inquired whether Nanking's duties toward Chinese concessions were transferred to the cognizance of the Japanese Foreign Minister. If not, Nanking believed that the East Asia Reconstruction Bureau had been given too much authority in the interpretation of concession responsibilities. Yet, while Tokyo actually formulated Nanking's policies, for all outward appearances, the Peoples' Government appeared to arrive at a decision under is own initiative.[1362]
573. Ambassador Honda Asks to Retain His Present Status
Fearing that the various proposed plans for an overall reorganization of the Peoples' Government would effect his position as Japanese Ambassador to Nanking, Mr. Kumataro Honda requested that Tokyo authorities influence Wang to reconsider any tentative change in his present official status. Because of the close contact he maintained with the developing situation in southern China, Ambassador Honda believed that he would be of more immediate value to Nanking if allowed to remain on duty in China.
In transmitting the record of this conversation to Nanking on August 14, 1941, the Japanese official in Tokyo pointed out that Ambassador Honda would be difficult to replace in the Japanese government. Therefore, if Ambassador Honda could be used effectively in the revised administrational set-up of Nanking, it was requested that he not be transferred. At
[1361] III, 1068.
[1362] III, 1069.
[279]
the same time, however, Tokyo realized that if President Wang Ching-wei considered the matter past reconsideration, then Ambassador Honda was not to agitate for reinstatement through other sources.[1363]
The afternoon of August 14, 1941 President Wang stated his decision regarding Ambassador Honda's position by explaining that any change in the administrative system inevitably necessitated a transfer of certain Foreign Office officials. No one would be replaced until definite replies of acceptance were received from respective successors. However, it was definite that Ambassador Honda would be reclassified in accordance with the new policies set forth by the Peoples' Government.[1364]
574. Japanese Offices in Central China Received New Code
During these governmental changes in Japanese controlled China, it was particularly important that security precautions be strengthened and strictly enforced. In order to supply various Japanese offices in Central China with the new Yoo code, Secretary Nishida of the Japanese Embassy at Nanking sailed aboard the Yawata Maru from Kobe on August 18, 1941. After arriving at Shanghai where Japanese officials were to facilitate his passage through the customs inspection, Mr. Nishida planned to spend several days there explaining the use of the new code system to the telegraphic office.[1365]
575. Nanking Fears Interception of Its Messages by Chungking
Japanese awareness of the necessity for safeguarding their communications was further evidenced on August 20, 1941. Fearing that their defective code system increased the danger of Chungking's interception and decryption of messages, Nanking proposed that its use be discontinued between Tokyo and Nanking. Instead, all telegraphic communications were to be sent simply in the customary telegraphic systems.
Meanwhile, the Japanese Foreign Office and the Minister of Communications conferred on the settlement of all problems connected with the transmission of code messages.[1366]
576. Nanking Army Refuses to Interfere with Problem Concerning Custom Officials
A few days later, on August 22, 1941, a political problem, undoubtedly proving the necessity for this increased security consciousness involved the Peoples' Government at Nanking. Apparently, the Nanking army had been offered some voice in the personnel questions affecting Japanese custom officials. But the Nanking Army Headquarters wired the North China army that in view of the present international situation, it preferred to leave such problems to Foreign Office officials. Therefore, the army was not to establish any group within the Special Affairs organization for the purpose of supervising customs.
Regarding the appointment of customs authorities, Nanking did offer one suggestion. Relying on information previously obtained from Peking, an official of the Peoples' Government proposed the exchange of Itaro Ishii and Mr. Koyamada in their respective positions.[1367]
577. Japan Negotiates Peace Terms with Shansi Army
About this same time Japan was concerned with another situation in which the political and military aspects were greatly related. In the early summer of 1941 the Peoples' Government conducted negotiations for the surrender of the Shansi army and the transfer of its allegiance from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's forces to those of Japan. However by
[1363] III, 1070.
[1364] III, 1071.
[1365] III, 1072.
[1366] III, 1073.
[1367] III, 1074.
[280]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
August 22, 1941, preparations for the terms of the peace treaty were still largely in the preliminary stages.
Nevertheless, the Japanese official in Peking, Mr. K. Hayashi, informed Tokyo that Mr. Yen Hsi-shan, Chief of the Military Commission and head of the Shansi army wished to sign an agreement with Japanese forces without delay. To complete the many necessary details, Mr. Tuchida, Staff Officer of the Japanese First Army, had arrived in Enan in the Shansi Province on August 19, 1941 in order to confer with the Chief of Staff Tsukiyama. Mr. Yen Hsi-shan was particularly anxious to complete negotiations with Japan because his faction had already severed connections with the central military authorities, and as a result about 10,000 troops of the Southern China Army had invaded territory under his domain.[1368]
578. Nanking Requests a Military Allotment from Japan
To meet the growing requirements for a standing army of its own, Nanking realized it would be necessary to obtain funds for training and equipment. Japan originally proposed extending a yearly allotment to the newly organized National government. Since the Nanking government lacked both military establishments for the proper training of its officers and sufficient weapons, President Wang suggested that the allotment for 1941 be used chiefly in alleviating these military deficiencies.[1369] Therefore, Nanking requested a 50,000,000 yen loan to cover the supply of military equipment. Although Major General Sadaaki Kagesa, acting Japanese military adviser, reduced the proposed loan to 10,000,000 yen before submitting it to the Foreign office through the General Army, he was in favor of using the money in this manner.[1370]
579. Japanese Consul Generals in China to Meet in Conference
In view of these numerous developments affecting Japanese-occupied China, the Foreign Minister initiated preparations for a conference of the Japanese Consul-Generals in China. That a definite date might be set for the meeting, Shanghai wired Tokyo on August 26, 1941 for further information. Unless more urgent matters interfered, Shanghai further suggested that an intelligence meeting, to be held about September 20, supplement the conference of the Consul-Generals.[1371]
The following day Minister Shinero Kuro Hidaka informed the head of the East Asia Bureau that the business and intelligence meeting was tentatively scheduled, pending the approval of the directors, for September 24 through September 26, 1941, in Nanking. After discussing the advisability of this meeting with the China Affairs Board, the director of the East Asia Bureau was expected to communicate with Minister Hidaka.[1372]
580. Japan Freezes Foreign Currency in Chinese Reserve Bank
One of the chief problems existing between Japan and the sections of China under its control evolved from a Japanese order freezing foreign currency in the Chinese Reserve Bank. To exchange the frozen funds into special yen currency would necessarily affect the reserve holding in the Japanese National Treasury since it would mean Japan's making good any loss the Chinese suffered by it. Therefore, on August 30, 1941 Tokyo definitely stated that no action would be taken to rescind the freezing measure.
Nevertheless, the Japanese government realized that unless some of the conditions arising out of the freezing order were alleviated, the reserve bank's credit would suffer and its oper-
[1368] III, 1075.
[1369] III, 1076.
[1370] III, 1077.
[1371] III, 1078.
[1372] III, 1079.
[281]
ations might cease. Therefore, the officials of the Chinese Reserve Bank planned to confer on methods of relieving the situation.[1373] However, Japan was aware that the question could not be entirely settled by such a meeting since Tokyo officials desired to turn the problem into a situation advantageous to their own government. Furthermore on August 30, 1941 it was suggested that Nanking use this opportunity to force China to institute policies of exchange and loans which would increase its cooperation with, and dependency upon, Japan.[1374]
581. Shanghai Restrictions on Gasoline Impede Japanese Military Transportation
At the same time that it began strict enforcement of this freezing order against China, Japan was suffering under a similar measure imposed upon it by Shanghai officials. Before the order freezing Japanese assets and the passage of strict export rules had been put into effect at Shanghai, the Nanking Petroleum Guild purchased refined gasoline from the Shanghai Foreign Oil Dealers for distribution to Chinese and Japanese military officials and civilians. However, beginning August 28, 1941, the oil dealers prohibited the sale of Shanghai gasoline for redistribution to the interior with the result that Nanking's supply of petroleum was estimated to be sufficient for only one month.
Because this order impeded the transportation of principal commodities throughout occupied China, Nanking officials informed Tokyo on August 30, 1941 that in cooperation with military authorities, the Peoples' Government considered effecting counter-measures against Shanghai. In order to carry out such measures successfully, Nanking asked the Foreign Minister to inform the East Asia Development Company in central China regarding the existing situation.[1375]
582. Berlin Appoints German Officials in China
It was particularly important during this period of economic and political crisis that Japan reinforce its diplomatic relations with Germany. After Berlin's official recognition of Nanking, the German government and the Japanese Embassy conferred on the appointment of Germans to serve as honorary Chinese consuls and on the protection of German nationals in China. On September 1, 1941 the German Charge in Nanking informed Minister Hidaka of this discussion.[1376]
583. Shanghai Sets Date for Intelligence Meeting
With this steady progression of international affairs reaching a peak in September, Shanghai sent a dispatch to Tokyo on September 3, 1941 definitely scheduling a date for the Japanese intelligence meeting,[1377] which had been previously set for September 20, 1941.[1378] In order that the special intelligence official being sent from Moscow might attend, the meeting was to be held from September 29 to October 2, 1941.[1379]
A few days later on September 5, 1941, Mr. Hiroshi Hori sent word to Counselor Tashiro that the Consul Generals from Manchukuo, Tientsin, Peking, Hankow, Canton, Hongkong, Nanking and Shanghai would attend this intelligence meeting.[1380]
[1373] III, 1080.
[1374] III, 1081.
[1375] III, 1082.
[1376] III, 1083.
[1377] III, 1084.
[1378] III, 1078.
[1379] III, 1084.
[1380] III, 1085.
[282]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
584. Japanese Official Observes Conditions in North China
In the meantime Mr. Chu Min-yi, Nanking's Minister of Foreign Affairs, stopped at several cities in occupied China, including Tientsin and Peking, in order to report on the existing conditions in northern China when he returned to Japan, where he was unofficially connected with the Embassy. While on this trip, Minister Chu Min-yi was scheduled to visit Commander Okamura and possibly Director Shiozawa. Therefore on September 4, 1941, Nanking requested that the military authorities and liaison officials of the East Asia Development Company be instructed to assist him.[1381]
585. Japan Seeks Ratification of Treaty with Shansi Army
With preparations underway for meetings to consolidate Japan's political hold over its positions in China, the agreement confirming the surrender and incorporation of the Shansi army into the Nanking puppet forces neared completion. Secret information forwarded from Mr. Sakuji Hayashi on September 5, 1941, revealed that in order to clarify the understanding and to have it ratified, representatives of the Japanese and Shansi forces were to confer on September 8, 1941. Colonel Tadeo Hongo of the North China army, leaving for Taigen on September 11, 1941, was scheduled to present the details of the agreement.[1382]
Shortly after this conference, a dispatch to Tokyo disclosed that Mr. Matsutaro Tanabe, Chief of the General Staff of the Japanese North China Army, Mr. Sigezaki and Mr. Tsukiyama, Staff officers of the Japanese First Army, Mr. Tsuchida, Mr. Hayashi and the Governor of the Shansi Province had assembled to discuss the final plans with Shansi army officials represented by Mr. Chao Chen-shou. But in spite of the efforts made to reach a satisfactory arrangement at that time, numerous problems requiring settlement by a specially designated committee of Japanese and Chinese experts prevented the signing of a definite treaty. Questions involving the Northwestern Business concern and the Do Ho Railway were pending. More important still was the request of the Shansi army to have their forces increased to approximately 300,000 or more men fully equipped with military supplies and with funds.[1383]
However, since Japan intended to use this Chinese army mainly for its political rather than its military significance, it was doubtful if the Shansi forces would ever be actually re-enforced. For Japanese purposes the value of the proposed treaty lay in the effect it would have on both Mr. Yu Hsueh Chung, Governor of the Hopeh Province and member of the military commission of the Nationalist government, and on Mr. Fu Tsuo I, Chairman of the Suiyuan Province and Commander of the 37th Chinese division. Tokyo further hoped that the surrender of the Shansi army and its adoption of Japanese policies would influence the Chinese traders who had financial interests in the Shansi Province.[1384]
In view of Japan's motives, Japanese officials requested that Mr. Yen Hsi-shan formally announce the break with Chungking and the signing of the armistice agreement with Japan. But until the Shansi army had been distributed into the various sections to unite with Japanese forces and until the problems of the Central and Eighth Route armies had been settled, Mr. Yen Hsi-shan refused to publicize the forthcoming treaty.[1385]
Although the terms of the final agreement had not been decided upon, the Nanking government on September 12, 1941 informed Tokyo that over 1,000,000 yuan would be disbursed to the Shansi army. If this force went to war with China, President Wang Ching-wei intended to grant Commander Yen Hsi-shan the position of Chairman of the Military Council and Vice-Chief of the Nanking government.[1386]
[1381] III, 1086.
[1382] III, 1087.
[1383] III, 1088.
[1384] Ibid.
[1385] Ibid.
[1386] III, 1089.
[283]
586. Japan Extends Loan for Central China Operations
As negotiations with the Shansi army achieved satisfactory results, Tokyo meanwhile became concerned with other operations in China. After studying the expenditures necessary for central China, on September 9, 1941, the Japanese government decided to extend a 30,000,000 yen loan. Funds were obtained from foreign loans and reparation moneys that had been accumulating in the six affiliated banks in northern China since March 30, 1941 when Japan established the National government in Nanking. Although definite conditions for drawing on these funds were to be decided for each separate case, the Yokohama Specie Bank was responsible for lending the money. That part of the foreign loan money which was accumulated through the Shanghai Maritime Customs was held in Chinese currency as a special reserve fund of the six banks.[1387]
587. Japanese Official Reviews Chinese Reserve Bank Problem
Because of the large amount of money used in the extension of its war with China and the distribution of loans to Japanese-subsidized China, the Tokyo government realized the necessity of maintaining financial stability. For that reason, the problems arising from the freezing of the foreign currency in the Chinese Reserve Bank were given careful consideration.[1388] The delay in the business dealings of their bank inconvenienced the completion of Japanese transactions as well. Therefore, on September 11, 1941, Mr. Kazaro Aoki, the economic adviser to the Japanese Embassy at Nanking, went to Shanghai in order to check the effectiveness and adaptability of the proposed settlement plans. The East Asia Development Bureau was kept informed of all developments.[1389]
588. Nanking Ambassador to Leave for Post in Germany
While Nanking's economic and military problems occupied much of Japan's attention during this period, its diplomatic affairs were not neglected. As a result of the international situation, and by an agreement with the British government, Japan dispatched the Asama Maru from Yokohama on September 20, 1941 to pick up Japanese evacuees from Europe. Since the ship stopped at Lisbon, Tokyo seized this opportunity to suggest that Mr. Li Sheng-wu, Nanking's newly-appointed Ambassador to Germany, and his official party take passage aboard this ship.[1390] But the Asama Maru was not scheduled to dock at Shanghai; therefore, on September 9, 1941, the Japanese government advised that the Nanking Ambassador be prepared to embark at an appointed port.[1391]
Certain complications arose when Japan realized that in order to reach their posts in Germany and Italy from the port at Lisbon, the Nanking officials must necessarily pass through countries which had not recognized this Japanese state. For that reason Nanking became concerned over the possible difficulty of securing the proper visas.[1392]
Mr. Li Sheng-wu was apparently not ready to leave Nanking at this time. Therefore, on September 12, 1941, Nanking wired Tokyo that only members of the Ambassador's staff would sail aboard the Asama Maru.[1393]
[1387] III, 1090.
[1388] III, 1080-1081.
[1389] III, 1091.
[1390] III, 1092-1093.
[1391] III, 1093.
[1392] III, 1094.
[1393] III. 1095.
[284]
THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR
589. Japan Concerned over Delay in Appointing Nanking Ambassador to Italy
Since these preparations were underway for sending the new Nanking Ambassador to Berlin, Mr. Yoshiro Ando, a counselor at the Japanese Embassy in Rome on September 12, 1941 called on Mr. Prunas, a member of the Italian Foreign Office, to inquire about Italy's delay in approving the appointment of a Nanking Ambassador. In reply Mr. Prunas blamed the numerous details relating to the establishment of the New Order in Europe. Furthermore, he assured Mr. Ando that the Italian government had no objections to such an appointment and would act on the matter immediately.[1394]
Apparently, however, no action had been taken by September 16, 1941; for on that date Nanking asked that Tokyo use its influence in procuring the necessary agreement with Rome in order that the new ambassador might sail with other officials of the People's Government aboard the Asama Maru.[1395]
The evening of September 17, 1941 the Japanese Foreign Office received a confidential report from the Italian government. Although the appointment was yet to be confirmed by the political council, Mr. Go Gai Sei[1396] would probably be named as Nanking Ambassador to Italy.[1397]
590. Berlin Appoints German Officials to Nanking
While Nanking arranged for the establishment of embassies in countries recognizing its government, the Axis nations reciprocated by sending diplomatic officials to Nanking. Since a regular German Ambassador could not be sent in the immediate future, on September 16, 1941, the Berlin government announced the appointment of Mr. Fischer as a German Charge d'Affaires.[1398] Although it was anticipated that a regular German Ambassador would not be stationed in Nanking for many months, on September 23, 1941, Tokyo disclosed that Mr. Henrich D. Stahmer expected to be given that position. In a discussion with Mr. Shun-ichi Kase, Mr. Stahmer stated that as soon as the necessary arrangements were effected, Berlin would publicize this decision.[1399]
591. Nanking Ambassador Delays Trip to Germany
Yet if Germany's official diplomatic relations with the Peoples' Government apparently progressed ahead of schedule, this did not hold true of Nanking's plans. Unforeseen circumstances forced the Nanking Ambassador to delay his own trip. Therefore, on September 25, 1941, Mr. Li Shen-wu informed Mr. M. Fischer, the German Charge d'Affaires, that for the time being a secretary was being sent to act in the capacity of commercial attache in Berlin.[1400]
However, in order to complete plans for the departure of other Nanking officials to Germany on September 25, 1941, Nanking asked to be kept informed of the Asama Maru's sailing schedule from Yokohama.[1401] By October 1, 1941, Nanking had completed the list of reservations that it desired to make aboard the ship. The diplomatic staff to be aboard included Minister Li and his daughter, Secretaries Tang and Feng accompanied by their families, and several other secretaries and attendants.[1402]
[1394] III, 1096.
[1395] III, 1097.
[1396] Kana Spelling.
[1397] III, 1098.
[1398] III, 1099.
[1399] III, 1100.
[1400] III, 1101.
[1401] III, 1102.
[1402] III, 1103.
[285]
592. President Wang Seeks Information on Japanese-American Relations
Although its activities were closely allied with and dependent upon these Axis-dominated countries, Nanking did not lose sight of the important effect that the Japanese-American situation would have on the Peoples' Government. For that reason when requested for an interview which would undoubtedly entail a discussion of these relations, President Wang asked Tokyo for advice regarding the attitude to be adopted. Mr. Wang recalled that Prime Minister Konoye had been pessimistic because of the unpromising turn in diplomacy. However, by the end of September, 1941, Mr. Wang hoped that subsequent developments had thrown a new light on the existing problems.
Particularly interesting to President Wang was the United States' stand on the Chinese incident. When interviewed, Mr. Wang insisted that his government did not object to United States' participation in a settlement of the Japanese-Chinese war providing that its peace proposals did not aim at the overthrow of Japan's New Order in East Asia.[1403]
593. Germany Appoints Pro-Japanese Diplomats in China
Meanwhile, Nanking-German diplomacy became increasingly favorable and by October 2, 1941, Berlin had chosen a new staff of pro-Japanese diplomats to serve in occupied China. As had been expected,[1404] Mr. Stahmer was appointed Ambassador to Nanking upon the personal recommendation of Chancellor Adolph Hitler who believed him capable of complete cooperation with Japan. Although engaged in diplomatic work since the establishment of the Ribbentrop office, the present appointment was Ambassador Stahmer's first as a foreign diplomat.
Because of his enthusiasm for the Tripartite alliance, Ambassador Stahmer was anxious to suppress the old type of German diplomat in China. However, certain officials believed that the type of German diplomacy previously characterizing relations with China was deep rooted and therefore would clash with the newly-appointed ambassador. Possibly for that reason, the German government chose other well-established officials to work with Ambassador Stahmer in administrating German affairs in Nanking. Mr. Erich Boltze, former counselor to the German Embassy in Tokyo, and Mr. Johannes Borchers, former Consul-General in New York, were transferred to the Embassy in China. Mr. M. Fischer became the German Consul-General in Shanghai.[1405]
594. Tokyo Arranges Reception for Nanking Officials Going Abroad
In order to raise the prestige of those Nanking officials reporting to their Embassies abroad, the Peoples' Government arranged with Tokyo on October 3, 1941 for a special reception to be given before the sailing of the Asama Maru.[1406]
Since the sailing schedule of the Asama Maru remained indefinite,[1407] the Japanese anticipated several days in which to continue instructing the Nanking staff on their duties in foreign countries.[1408]
595. Chungking Investigates Rumors of Shansi Army Surrender
Despite the efforts of the Shansi army to keep secret its peace negotiations with the Japanese forces, an intelligence report transmitted from Shanghai on October 13, 1941 revealed that the Chungking military committee was sending five spies to investigate the rumors that Commander Yen Hsi-shan had transferred his allegiance to the Nanking government. These spies were prepared to enter Nanking secretly by way of Hongkong and Shanghai.[1409] Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
[1403] III, 1104.
[1404] III, 1100.
[1405] III, 1105.
[1406] III, 1106.
[1407] III, 1107.
[1408] III, 1106.
[1409] III, 1108.
Tuesday, June 30, 2009
hours 4.hou.003 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Synopsis
Chef has a new woman enter his life, and he no longer has much time to spend with the boys. He then decides to marry her and get a new job, leaving the school cafeteria to be run by other employees of South Park Elementary. The boys soon discover that the soon-to-be Mrs. Chef is actually an evil Succubus that intends to devour Chef's soul once they get married and set out to stop her.
Full Recap
Cartman visits the optometrist, a man who makes fun of Cartman's weight problem, by calling him "Piggy". The optometrist dilates Cartman's pupils and Cartman shows up at school with his eyes wide open. The boys discover that Chef has been replaced by a new character called Mr. Derf, who does his best to entertain them in line. After school the boys go to Chef's home where they find out that Chef had quit his job. Chef has quit his job because he met a woman whose changed his life and helped him to see the error of his ways. The boys decide they need to do something to save Chef. The optometrist prescribes stupid looking glasses for Cartman and then staples to his head to make sure he doesn't take them off. The boys (with a bespectacled Cartman) visit Chef at his new job at an accounting firm. The boys appeal to Chef, but he tells them this is just something they are going to have to learn to deal with. He promises to meet the boys after work to play some ball. The following morning after he didn't show up to play ball, the boys return to his house. Chef tells the boys that he and Veronica are planning to get married.
Mr. Garrison tells the children about The Facts of Life, the TV show, not the real ones. The boys ask Mr. Garrison advice about their problem with Chef. He tells them about the "succubus syndrome", a woman sent from hell to suck the life out of a man. The boys plan to tell the Chef about the succubus, but Cartman is diverted for another trip to the optometrist. At Chef's home, the boys meet Chef's parents. Chef's parents tell them about all the times they saw the Loch Ness monster, who is always asking them for about "tree fiddy" ($3.50). Cartman gets his laser eye surgery, which goes bad, so he must wear bandages over his eyes. Veronica, the succubus, comes to Cartman's home to help the boys understand why she is going to marry Chef. Before she leaves she reveals her true self to the boys and tells them there isn't anything they can do about it.
At the rehearsal dinner, Chef's father tells the story about the time the Loch Ness monster impersonated his son. The boys arrive to tell Chef the bad news, Veronica is a succubus. Chef tells the boys to accept the marriage, or get out his life. Stan isn't going to give up. The boys seek a way to destroy the succubus. They learn that if they sing the song of the succubus "There's Got to be a Morning After" backwards they can destroy her. They've got three hours to learn the song. At the church, the boys start to execute their plan, but the tape jams. In the process the succubus reveals itself and kills Kenny. They get the taped restarted and finish singing the song backwards, causing the succubus to disappear. In the aftermath, Chef wonders what he ever saw in her.
Back at school, things are back to normal; Chef is back in job and singing. At the optometrist Cartman brings in Kenny's head, hoping to get an eye transplant.
Kenny dies when he is attacked after the succubus reveals itself at the church.
Chef has a new woman enter his life, and he no longer has much time to spend with the boys. He then decides to marry her and get a new job, leaving the school cafeteria to be run by other employees of South Park Elementary. The boys soon discover that the soon-to-be Mrs. Chef is actually an evil Succubus that intends to devour Chef's soul once they get married and set out to stop her.
Full Recap
Cartman visits the optometrist, a man who makes fun of Cartman's weight problem, by calling him "Piggy". The optometrist dilates Cartman's pupils and Cartman shows up at school with his eyes wide open. The boys discover that Chef has been replaced by a new character called Mr. Derf, who does his best to entertain them in line. After school the boys go to Chef's home where they find out that Chef had quit his job. Chef has quit his job because he met a woman whose changed his life and helped him to see the error of his ways. The boys decide they need to do something to save Chef. The optometrist prescribes stupid looking glasses for Cartman and then staples to his head to make sure he doesn't take them off. The boys (with a bespectacled Cartman) visit Chef at his new job at an accounting firm. The boys appeal to Chef, but he tells them this is just something they are going to have to learn to deal with. He promises to meet the boys after work to play some ball. The following morning after he didn't show up to play ball, the boys return to his house. Chef tells the boys that he and Veronica are planning to get married.
Mr. Garrison tells the children about The Facts of Life, the TV show, not the real ones. The boys ask Mr. Garrison advice about their problem with Chef. He tells them about the "succubus syndrome", a woman sent from hell to suck the life out of a man. The boys plan to tell the Chef about the succubus, but Cartman is diverted for another trip to the optometrist. At Chef's home, the boys meet Chef's parents. Chef's parents tell them about all the times they saw the Loch Ness monster, who is always asking them for about "tree fiddy" ($3.50). Cartman gets his laser eye surgery, which goes bad, so he must wear bandages over his eyes. Veronica, the succubus, comes to Cartman's home to help the boys understand why she is going to marry Chef. Before she leaves she reveals her true self to the boys and tells them there isn't anything they can do about it.
At the rehearsal dinner, Chef's father tells the story about the time the Loch Ness monster impersonated his son. The boys arrive to tell Chef the bad news, Veronica is a succubus. Chef tells the boys to accept the marriage, or get out his life. Stan isn't going to give up. The boys seek a way to destroy the succubus. They learn that if they sing the song of the succubus "There's Got to be a Morning After" backwards they can destroy her. They've got three hours to learn the song. At the church, the boys start to execute their plan, but the tape jams. In the process the succubus reveals itself and kills Kenny. They get the taped restarted and finish singing the song backwards, causing the succubus to disappear. In the aftermath, Chef wonders what he ever saw in her.
Back at school, things are back to normal; Chef is back in job and singing. At the optometrist Cartman brings in Kenny's head, hoping to get an eye transplant.
Kenny dies when he is attacked after the succubus reveals itself at the church.
Wednesday, May 20, 2009
Boston University 6.bu.3401 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
When deadly bird flu strikes, six degrees of separation could be the distance from here to hell. Even if a vaccine is found to be effective, it may be impossible to produce enough shots for everybody quickly enough, so authorities would have to decide how to use the doses they have in the most effective way. Researchers are now proposing a new strategy for targeting shots that could, at least in theory, stop a pandemic from spreading along the network of social interactions.
Vaccinating selected people is essentially equivalent to cutting out nodes of the social network. As far as the pandemic is concerned, it’s as if those people no longer exist. The team’s idea is to single out people so that immunizing them breaks up the network into smaller parts of roughly equal sizes. Computer simulations show that this strategy could block a pandemic using 5 to 50 percent fewer doses than existing strategies, the researchers write in an upcoming Physical Review Letters.
“The strategy is to disintegrate the network,” says study coauthor Shlomo Havlin of Bar-Ilan University in Ramat-Gan, Israel. Havlin and his collaborators say their method could also offer a cost-effective way of blocking the spread of computer viruses on the Internet, or breaking up a terrorist network.
“The idea of splitting a network into equal subnetworks is very simple, yet quite successful,” comments network-theory expert Dirk Brockmann of Northwestern University in Evanston, Ill. “It’s a surprise to me that it seems to work so well.”
The hard part could be getting enough information about the structure of social networks to know which nodes to target, says Alessandro Vespignani, a physicist at Indiana University in Bloomington who also studies mathematical models of pandemics. “I see this method as more promising in the context of computer viruses,” Vespignani says, because the Internet’s structure is easier to understand. In the case of pandemics, the strategy might still be effective for restricting travel by shutting down nodes in the network of global airline traffic.
Network-theory researchers have often assumed that one of the most efficient ways of blocking a pandemic is to immunize people who have the largest number of social connections. However, most people are separated from most other people by the proverbial six degrees of separation, and removing only the highly connected nodes might leave, say, 10 degrees of separation — but the people are still connected. The pandemic could still spread over large swaths of society, albeit at a slower pace. Meanwhile, Havlin and his team say, many doses of vaccine could be used in parts of the networks that have already been isolated and shrunk down.
“You’ve just got to use the doses you’ve got in a more clever way,” says coauthor H. Eugene Stanley of Boston University.
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire To test their idea, the researchers designed a computer program that singles out the nodes that, when removed, will break up the network into parts of equal sizes. They tested it on models of several different types of networks. Their method was faster at stopping a simulated pandemic than was removing the highly connected nodes, they report.
In one of the most dramatic illustrations of their technique, the researchers simulated the spread of a pandemic using data from a Swedish study of social connections, in which more than 310,000 people are represented and connected based on whether they live in the same household or they work in the same place. With the new method, the epidemic spread to about 4 percent of the population, compared to nearly 40 percent for more standard strategies, the team reports.
Vaccinating selected people is essentially equivalent to cutting out nodes of the social network. As far as the pandemic is concerned, it’s as if those people no longer exist. The team’s idea is to single out people so that immunizing them breaks up the network into smaller parts of roughly equal sizes. Computer simulations show that this strategy could block a pandemic using 5 to 50 percent fewer doses than existing strategies, the researchers write in an upcoming Physical Review Letters.
“The strategy is to disintegrate the network,” says study coauthor Shlomo Havlin of Bar-Ilan University in Ramat-Gan, Israel. Havlin and his collaborators say their method could also offer a cost-effective way of blocking the spread of computer viruses on the Internet, or breaking up a terrorist network.
“The idea of splitting a network into equal subnetworks is very simple, yet quite successful,” comments network-theory expert Dirk Brockmann of Northwestern University in Evanston, Ill. “It’s a surprise to me that it seems to work so well.”
The hard part could be getting enough information about the structure of social networks to know which nodes to target, says Alessandro Vespignani, a physicist at Indiana University in Bloomington who also studies mathematical models of pandemics. “I see this method as more promising in the context of computer viruses,” Vespignani says, because the Internet’s structure is easier to understand. In the case of pandemics, the strategy might still be effective for restricting travel by shutting down nodes in the network of global airline traffic.
Network-theory researchers have often assumed that one of the most efficient ways of blocking a pandemic is to immunize people who have the largest number of social connections. However, most people are separated from most other people by the proverbial six degrees of separation, and removing only the highly connected nodes might leave, say, 10 degrees of separation — but the people are still connected. The pandemic could still spread over large swaths of society, albeit at a slower pace. Meanwhile, Havlin and his team say, many doses of vaccine could be used in parts of the networks that have already been isolated and shrunk down.
“You’ve just got to use the doses you’ve got in a more clever way,” says coauthor H. Eugene Stanley of Boston University.
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire To test their idea, the researchers designed a computer program that singles out the nodes that, when removed, will break up the network into parts of equal sizes. They tested it on models of several different types of networks. Their method was faster at stopping a simulated pandemic than was removing the highly connected nodes, they report.
In one of the most dramatic illustrations of their technique, the researchers simulated the spread of a pandemic using data from a Swedish study of social connections, in which more than 310,000 people are represented and connected based on whether they live in the same household or they work in the same place. With the new method, the epidemic spread to about 4 percent of the population, compared to nearly 40 percent for more standard strategies, the team reports.
Thursday, May 14, 2009
two faces 7.two.001002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
When the nefarious Mr. Hyde takes his own life, the good Dr. Jekyll is also killed.
Scientists are adopting the reverse approach for halting the protein behind prion diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob and mad cow. By targeting the harmless version of the brain protein whose evil alter ego brings on disease, researchers have prevented the bad version of the protein from continuing its rampage in the brains of infected mice. The results are reported online July 14 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The approach of killing Jekyll to get Hyde is very promising, comments biochemist Sina Ghaemmaghami of the Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases at the University of California, San Francisco. The sinister version of the protein comes in several slightly different forms, making it hard to develop a single attack strategy, Ghaemmaghami says.
Led by neuroscientist Giovanna Mallucci of University College London, researchers delivered bits of attack RNA to interfere with production of the normal version of the prion protein. In animals who have prion disease, this protein somehow gets converted into a dangerous form, which then travels through the brain, coaxing other good versions of the protein to go bad.
The bad versions of the protein then clump together, a process that damages cells, although scientists aren’t exactly sure how.
“No one knows what the toxic entity is — that’s the black box,” says Mallucci.
It’s also a mystery how prions replicate — they seem to do it without DNA — and they are difficult to kill.
Using bits of RNA that interfere with protein production has potential as a therapy for treating many neurodegenerative diseases, but those therapies are a ways off, says Ghaemmaghami. In the new study, researchers injected the interfering RNA, packed in a lentivirus, into the hippocampus of rodents already given a diseased version of the protein. Treated animals lived longer and had fewer symptoms of prion disease.
But getting therapeutic molecules into the human brain is another story, especially molecules as big as RNA. “The brain is just about the hardest place to get into,” Ghaemmaghami says.
In a separate study, researchers have come closer to understanding what PrP, the innocuous Dr. Jekyll version of the prion protein, does for a living. The PrP protein is found in most brain cells, but its function remains a mystery. Mice engineered to not have the PrP protein appear relatively healthy. The slight differences scientists have noted is that PrP-free mice don’t perform quite as well as their normal counterparts on some learning and memory tasks and also don’t recover as well from seizures or strokes.
To investigate the role of regular PrP, Gerald Zamponi and colleagues at the University of Calgary in Canada looked at communication among the brain cells of PrP-free mice. When the nerve cells received the messenger molecule known as glutamate, they went into hyperactive mode, repeatedly firing as if the message had been shouted at them, says Zamponi. These overexcited cells were more likely to die because of this overactivation, the scientists report in a recent Journal of Cell Biology.
Normal PrP protein might function to block some NMDA receptors and thereby prevent overexcitement of certain neurons, says Zamponi.
The researchers also removed magnesium from the cells. Magnesium usually blocks some of the receptors that catch the NMDA messages. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Without it, the brain cells went into seizure mode, further evidence that the PRP-free mice were super-sensitive to NMDA.
The PrP protein seems to have emerged late in vertebrate evolution—there is no version that scientists can scrutinize in critters like yeast and fruit flies. While it is too early to conclusively identify its role, investigating what the good version of the protein does has merit, says UCSF’s Ghaemmaghami.
After all, that’s how the good Dr. Jekyll’s friends learned the origin of the deadly Mr. Hyde.
Scientists are adopting the reverse approach for halting the protein behind prion diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob and mad cow. By targeting the harmless version of the brain protein whose evil alter ego brings on disease, researchers have prevented the bad version of the protein from continuing its rampage in the brains of infected mice. The results are reported online July 14 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The approach of killing Jekyll to get Hyde is very promising, comments biochemist Sina Ghaemmaghami of the Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases at the University of California, San Francisco. The sinister version of the protein comes in several slightly different forms, making it hard to develop a single attack strategy, Ghaemmaghami says.
Led by neuroscientist Giovanna Mallucci of University College London, researchers delivered bits of attack RNA to interfere with production of the normal version of the prion protein. In animals who have prion disease, this protein somehow gets converted into a dangerous form, which then travels through the brain, coaxing other good versions of the protein to go bad.
The bad versions of the protein then clump together, a process that damages cells, although scientists aren’t exactly sure how.
“No one knows what the toxic entity is — that’s the black box,” says Mallucci.
It’s also a mystery how prions replicate — they seem to do it without DNA — and they are difficult to kill.
Using bits of RNA that interfere with protein production has potential as a therapy for treating many neurodegenerative diseases, but those therapies are a ways off, says Ghaemmaghami. In the new study, researchers injected the interfering RNA, packed in a lentivirus, into the hippocampus of rodents already given a diseased version of the protein. Treated animals lived longer and had fewer symptoms of prion disease.
But getting therapeutic molecules into the human brain is another story, especially molecules as big as RNA. “The brain is just about the hardest place to get into,” Ghaemmaghami says.
In a separate study, researchers have come closer to understanding what PrP, the innocuous Dr. Jekyll version of the prion protein, does for a living. The PrP protein is found in most brain cells, but its function remains a mystery. Mice engineered to not have the PrP protein appear relatively healthy. The slight differences scientists have noted is that PrP-free mice don’t perform quite as well as their normal counterparts on some learning and memory tasks and also don’t recover as well from seizures or strokes.
To investigate the role of regular PrP, Gerald Zamponi and colleagues at the University of Calgary in Canada looked at communication among the brain cells of PrP-free mice. When the nerve cells received the messenger molecule known as glutamate, they went into hyperactive mode, repeatedly firing as if the message had been shouted at them, says Zamponi. These overexcited cells were more likely to die because of this overactivation, the scientists report in a recent Journal of Cell Biology.
Normal PrP protein might function to block some NMDA receptors and thereby prevent overexcitement of certain neurons, says Zamponi.
The researchers also removed magnesium from the cells. Magnesium usually blocks some of the receptors that catch the NMDA messages. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Without it, the brain cells went into seizure mode, further evidence that the PRP-free mice were super-sensitive to NMDA.
The PrP protein seems to have emerged late in vertebrate evolution—there is no version that scientists can scrutinize in critters like yeast and fruit flies. While it is too early to conclusively identify its role, investigating what the good version of the protein does has merit, says UCSF’s Ghaemmaghami.
After all, that’s how the good Dr. Jekyll’s friends learned the origin of the deadly Mr. Hyde.
Monday, May 4, 2009
rett 5.9.0 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
A study released in the Sept. 25 Neuron is a major step toward identifying the brain regions behind the behaviors that characterize Rett syndrome, a debilitating, autism-like neurological disease that primarily affects females.
The syndrome is marked by a constellation of symptoms, the most striking of which is repetitive hand wringing. Behavioral symptoms of the syndrome include a lack of language skills, muscle rigidity that imparts a characteristic tremor, high anxiety and, in some cases, excessive aggression.
Rett syndrome is caused by a damaged copy of a gene called MeCP2, which is located on the X chromosome. Because the gene is expressed throughout the brain, finding the discrete regions that control the long list of individual behavioral symptoms associated with the syndrome has proven exceptionally hard.
For help, scientists have turned to mice. Animals lacking the protein MeCP2 in all brain regions behave similarly to people who have Rett syndrome: increased stress responses, as measured by high levels of a stress hormone, muscle abnormalities and a distinct tremor. Presumably, each of these symptoms could be traced back to a particular region of the mouse brain, but because these mice lack MeCP2 everywhere, which region or regions were responsible for the abnormal behaviors was anyone’s guess.
A research team headed by Huda Zoghbi, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute researcher at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, has narrowed the search through precise brain manipulations in mice.
To home in on one region of the brain, Zoghbi’s team bred mice that were missing the gene only in the hypothalamus. In people, this region of the brain is critical for regulating not only emotions but also basic functions, such as blood pressure, breathing and sleep cycles. The team then put the mice through a battery of physical and mental tests.
While targeting a mutation to a small population of neurons is painstaking, the procedure provides clear benefits. "You get to see something that is masked. You really know what these neurons are doing specifically in a location," explains Zoghbi.
What the researchers saw was surprising: These mice showed several — but not all — of the abnormal behaviors shown by the mice lacking MeCP2 throughout the brain. Specifically, the mice’s stress responses were higher than normal, and their aggression levels were greater in unfamiliar conditions.
When the mice were housed with familiar litter-mates, they behaved normally. However, when presented with a strange mouse — a so-called intruder — the mice lacking MeCP2 specifically in the hypothalamus reacted with significantly more tail rattling and attacks.
"It's really the adaptation to a stranger in a new social domain that gets them frazzled," says Zoghbi.
That the mice only act aggressively in unfamiliar situations is interesting in light of reports that patients with autism-spectrum disorders often react to stressful and unusual conditions with aggression, the research group concludes.http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us
Lisa Monteggia, a psychiatrist at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas who is familiar with Rett syndrome, says, “I think this is a useful approach to try and map out regions of the brain that mediate complex behaviors.”
Granted, a tail-rattling mouse is a far cry from autism spectrum behaviors in humans. But studies like this are moving incrementally closer to the daunting task of understanding how brain regions and neurons — and the genes expressed inside them — influence behavior, and importantly, what to do when something goes wrong. "Slowly and surely, we will get there," Zoghbi says.Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
The syndrome is marked by a constellation of symptoms, the most striking of which is repetitive hand wringing. Behavioral symptoms of the syndrome include a lack of language skills, muscle rigidity that imparts a characteristic tremor, high anxiety and, in some cases, excessive aggression.
Rett syndrome is caused by a damaged copy of a gene called MeCP2, which is located on the X chromosome. Because the gene is expressed throughout the brain, finding the discrete regions that control the long list of individual behavioral symptoms associated with the syndrome has proven exceptionally hard.
For help, scientists have turned to mice. Animals lacking the protein MeCP2 in all brain regions behave similarly to people who have Rett syndrome: increased stress responses, as measured by high levels of a stress hormone, muscle abnormalities and a distinct tremor. Presumably, each of these symptoms could be traced back to a particular region of the mouse brain, but because these mice lack MeCP2 everywhere, which region or regions were responsible for the abnormal behaviors was anyone’s guess.
A research team headed by Huda Zoghbi, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute researcher at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, has narrowed the search through precise brain manipulations in mice.
To home in on one region of the brain, Zoghbi’s team bred mice that were missing the gene only in the hypothalamus. In people, this region of the brain is critical for regulating not only emotions but also basic functions, such as blood pressure, breathing and sleep cycles. The team then put the mice through a battery of physical and mental tests.
While targeting a mutation to a small population of neurons is painstaking, the procedure provides clear benefits. "You get to see something that is masked. You really know what these neurons are doing specifically in a location," explains Zoghbi.
What the researchers saw was surprising: These mice showed several — but not all — of the abnormal behaviors shown by the mice lacking MeCP2 throughout the brain. Specifically, the mice’s stress responses were higher than normal, and their aggression levels were greater in unfamiliar conditions.
When the mice were housed with familiar litter-mates, they behaved normally. However, when presented with a strange mouse — a so-called intruder — the mice lacking MeCP2 specifically in the hypothalamus reacted with significantly more tail rattling and attacks.
"It's really the adaptation to a stranger in a new social domain that gets them frazzled," says Zoghbi.
That the mice only act aggressively in unfamiliar situations is interesting in light of reports that patients with autism-spectrum disorders often react to stressful and unusual conditions with aggression, the research group concludes.http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us
Lisa Monteggia, a psychiatrist at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas who is familiar with Rett syndrome, says, “I think this is a useful approach to try and map out regions of the brain that mediate complex behaviors.”
Granted, a tail-rattling mouse is a far cry from autism spectrum behaviors in humans. But studies like this are moving incrementally closer to the daunting task of understanding how brain regions and neurons — and the genes expressed inside them — influence behavior, and importantly, what to do when something goes wrong. "Slowly and surely, we will get there," Zoghbi says.Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Thursday, April 30, 2009
sibling 6.sib.0900992 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
More than 30,000 neuroscientists from around the world gathered in Washington, D.C., November 15–19 for the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. Presentations covered the science of nerves and brains on scales from molecules to societies. From among the first day’s presentations, Science News staffers report on the latest neural insights into psychopaths, liars and baby rats separated from their mothers, as well as new research on how a tiny parasite disrupts rats’ ingrained fear of cats and how a rat mother’s favoritism for outgoing pups influences developing social skills.
Morality askew in psychopaths’ brains
Psychopaths display a dangerous mix of impulsiveness, grandiose thinking, callousness toward others and manipulative skill. They also show neural responses related to moral insensitivity and a keen interest in moral violations, new studies find.
Researchers led by Kent Kiehl of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque carted portable brain-scanning equipment to a New Mexico prison, where they recruited inmates who either did or did not qualify as psychopaths on an extensive questionnaire. Participants underwent scanning as they viewed images that depicted moral violations, such as a drunken driver or one man attacking another with a knife, or images that contained no moral violations, such as an angry driver.
Functional MRI scans showed reduced neural activity in 21 psychopathic inmates, relative to 21 non-psychopathic inmates, in brain regions linked to attaching emotional meaning to others’ acts and to reading others’ intentions in social situations, says study coauthor Alek Chakroff, a New Mexico graduate student in psychology. Psychopaths identified moral pictures and rated the severity of moral infractions as accurately as non-psychopaths did. These findings are consistent with the possibility that psychopaths intellectually evaluate the meaning of moral situations without experiencing any emotional reactions to those situations, Chakroff suggests.
In a second study, Kiehl’s group found that 25 psychopathic inmates displayed a signature neural electrical response a fraction of a second after viewing images of moral violations, indicating heightened attention to those images. A smaller version of this response appeared in non-psychopathic inmates. Moral violations draw psychopaths’ intense interest even before they have time to become consciously aware of what they’re seeing, Chakroff hypothesizes. —Bruce Bower
Parasite twists rats’ innate fear of cats…
In a dangerous game of cat and mouse, the most important player turns out to be a parasite. Researchers have known for some time that the parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a puppeteer that can force a rat to go against its own instincts and become attracted to the scent of cat urine. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET Now scientists have discovered the regions of a specific part of the rat brain called the amygdala involved in this parasite-imposed death wish.
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Toxo can only reproduce in the gut of a cat, which poses a logistical nightmare for the rat-dwelling parasite. To get into the cat, Toxo tricks rats into acting recklessly in the presence of their feline predators. Up until now, researchers have known little about the brain regions involved in this behavioral switch. A team led by Patrick House at Stanford University reports that they have identified two distinct regions of the brain, one important for fear and the other responsible for attraction, that are activated in Toxo-infected rats after they smell cat odor.
“You see two pathways [the fear and the attraction pathways] light up,” explains House. Surprisingly, the attraction region of the rat brain is similarly activated when a male rat encounters a female, suggesting that Toxo may fool the rat into mistaking the smell of cat urine for the odor of a potential mate. Although the research is far from over, the findings give researchers new clues to the workings of Toxo’s mysterious mind control. —Laura Sanders
…while early separation from mother mutes it
Young rats separated from their mother at a crucial age are not appropriately afraid of dangerous situations later, shows a new study led by Yoav Litvin of the University of Hawaii at Manoa. The finding may hold implications for understanding why some people engage in high-risk activity. In the rat world, one of the highest-risk behaviors is sniffing around a hungry cat. Usually, when rats encounter a whiff of cat (or other threats), they freeze. But a rat pup that has been separated from its mother for the early part of its life doesn’t show the usual amount of fear. What’s more, these maternally deprived rats do not learn to freeze as quickly as a rat raised with plenty of maternal love.
The rats that showed this deficit were separated from their mothers for three hours a day from day two to day 13 of their lives, which the researchers think could be a critical period for development of a particular part of the brain, the hypothalamus, that is involved in fear conditioning. Steve Siviy of the University of Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, who researches playful behavior in rats, likens these maternally deprived rats to kids who grow up in “crummy neighborhoods” whose mothers work two jobs. The researchers think that because these rats may expose themselves to more dangerous situations, they may set themselves up for a cycle of more emotional stress, not to mention bodily harm. —Laura Sanders
Deciding to lie, or not
Honest people don’t need to worry about being led into temptation, a new study suggests. To investigate whether honesty is an act of will or an inherent grace, Joshua Greene of Harvard University and colleagues scanned the brains of 25 people told they were participating in a study to see if a monetary reward made people better at predicting the future. Participants were prompted to predict the outcome of a coin toss. Sometimes they had to say this call out loud, sometimes were asked what they had guessed after the toss was completed. They were told they would win a set dollar amount when they predicted correctly. A control group of participants always said their prediction out loud, and thus had no opportunity to cheat.
As expected, the control group accurately predicted heads or tails about 50 percent of the time. The group that had the opportunity to cheat was “correct” about 66 percent of the time, with some participants “predicting” heads or tails with 90 percent accuracy. When these participants who tended to lie most actively chose not to lie, the brain scans showed significant activity in the prefrontal brain regions associated with decision making. Non-cheaters, who always told the truth, lacked this activity. The research team did wonder if these people “were really honest or just clueless,” says Greene. Post-experiment interviews confirmed that the honest people were aware of the opportunity to cheat. “When it comes to honesty, it seems to be more grace than will,” Greene says. —Rachel Ehrenberg
Moms favor outgoing pups, with consequences
Your mother probably does love your outgoing siblings more. A new study of rats shows that outgoing offspring got more attention from their mothers than did their more shy siblings.
Brothers and sisters have similar genes and grow up in a similar environment, but have differently personalities. Christina Ragan of Pennsylvania State University and her colleagues wanted to know if parental favoritism could affect personality. Previous research has shown that rat pups whose mothers licked them a lot were less susceptible to stress than pups from mothers that didn’t spend as much time grooming them. Ragan watched mother rats interact with their pups and counted how often each pup in a litter was licked in the first week of life. She found large differences in maternal attention, with the most-groomed pups in a litter getting two to three times more attention from mom than the least licked sibling, Ragan showed in a presentation at the neuroscience meeting.
Notably, usually the pups that got the most maternal attention sought it. Ragan found no connection between maternal attention and the amount of a stress hormone each pup produced. But she did find that pups that got the most attention from mom were also quicker to approach stranger rats. Pups that got less attention took longer to seek social contact with an unfamiliar rat. The difference between siblings evened out in adulthood. Ragan also saw that pups that actively sought attention from their mothers, but didn’t get it, hung back from interacting with rats they didn’t know. “Early interactions with mom can influence later social interactions,” she says.
Morality askew in psychopaths’ brains
Psychopaths display a dangerous mix of impulsiveness, grandiose thinking, callousness toward others and manipulative skill. They also show neural responses related to moral insensitivity and a keen interest in moral violations, new studies find.
Researchers led by Kent Kiehl of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque carted portable brain-scanning equipment to a New Mexico prison, where they recruited inmates who either did or did not qualify as psychopaths on an extensive questionnaire. Participants underwent scanning as they viewed images that depicted moral violations, such as a drunken driver or one man attacking another with a knife, or images that contained no moral violations, such as an angry driver.
Functional MRI scans showed reduced neural activity in 21 psychopathic inmates, relative to 21 non-psychopathic inmates, in brain regions linked to attaching emotional meaning to others’ acts and to reading others’ intentions in social situations, says study coauthor Alek Chakroff, a New Mexico graduate student in psychology. Psychopaths identified moral pictures and rated the severity of moral infractions as accurately as non-psychopaths did. These findings are consistent with the possibility that psychopaths intellectually evaluate the meaning of moral situations without experiencing any emotional reactions to those situations, Chakroff suggests.
In a second study, Kiehl’s group found that 25 psychopathic inmates displayed a signature neural electrical response a fraction of a second after viewing images of moral violations, indicating heightened attention to those images. A smaller version of this response appeared in non-psychopathic inmates. Moral violations draw psychopaths’ intense interest even before they have time to become consciously aware of what they’re seeing, Chakroff hypothesizes. —Bruce Bower
Parasite twists rats’ innate fear of cats…
In a dangerous game of cat and mouse, the most important player turns out to be a parasite. Researchers have known for some time that the parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a puppeteer that can force a rat to go against its own instincts and become attracted to the scent of cat urine. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET Now scientists have discovered the regions of a specific part of the rat brain called the amygdala involved in this parasite-imposed death wish.
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Toxo can only reproduce in the gut of a cat, which poses a logistical nightmare for the rat-dwelling parasite. To get into the cat, Toxo tricks rats into acting recklessly in the presence of their feline predators. Up until now, researchers have known little about the brain regions involved in this behavioral switch. A team led by Patrick House at Stanford University reports that they have identified two distinct regions of the brain, one important for fear and the other responsible for attraction, that are activated in Toxo-infected rats after they smell cat odor.
“You see two pathways [the fear and the attraction pathways] light up,” explains House. Surprisingly, the attraction region of the rat brain is similarly activated when a male rat encounters a female, suggesting that Toxo may fool the rat into mistaking the smell of cat urine for the odor of a potential mate. Although the research is far from over, the findings give researchers new clues to the workings of Toxo’s mysterious mind control. —Laura Sanders
…while early separation from mother mutes it
Young rats separated from their mother at a crucial age are not appropriately afraid of dangerous situations later, shows a new study led by Yoav Litvin of the University of Hawaii at Manoa. The finding may hold implications for understanding why some people engage in high-risk activity. In the rat world, one of the highest-risk behaviors is sniffing around a hungry cat. Usually, when rats encounter a whiff of cat (or other threats), they freeze. But a rat pup that has been separated from its mother for the early part of its life doesn’t show the usual amount of fear. What’s more, these maternally deprived rats do not learn to freeze as quickly as a rat raised with plenty of maternal love.
The rats that showed this deficit were separated from their mothers for three hours a day from day two to day 13 of their lives, which the researchers think could be a critical period for development of a particular part of the brain, the hypothalamus, that is involved in fear conditioning. Steve Siviy of the University of Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, who researches playful behavior in rats, likens these maternally deprived rats to kids who grow up in “crummy neighborhoods” whose mothers work two jobs. The researchers think that because these rats may expose themselves to more dangerous situations, they may set themselves up for a cycle of more emotional stress, not to mention bodily harm. —Laura Sanders
Deciding to lie, or not
Honest people don’t need to worry about being led into temptation, a new study suggests. To investigate whether honesty is an act of will or an inherent grace, Joshua Greene of Harvard University and colleagues scanned the brains of 25 people told they were participating in a study to see if a monetary reward made people better at predicting the future. Participants were prompted to predict the outcome of a coin toss. Sometimes they had to say this call out loud, sometimes were asked what they had guessed after the toss was completed. They were told they would win a set dollar amount when they predicted correctly. A control group of participants always said their prediction out loud, and thus had no opportunity to cheat.
As expected, the control group accurately predicted heads or tails about 50 percent of the time. The group that had the opportunity to cheat was “correct” about 66 percent of the time, with some participants “predicting” heads or tails with 90 percent accuracy. When these participants who tended to lie most actively chose not to lie, the brain scans showed significant activity in the prefrontal brain regions associated with decision making. Non-cheaters, who always told the truth, lacked this activity. The research team did wonder if these people “were really honest or just clueless,” says Greene. Post-experiment interviews confirmed that the honest people were aware of the opportunity to cheat. “When it comes to honesty, it seems to be more grace than will,” Greene says. —Rachel Ehrenberg
Moms favor outgoing pups, with consequences
Your mother probably does love your outgoing siblings more. A new study of rats shows that outgoing offspring got more attention from their mothers than did their more shy siblings.
Brothers and sisters have similar genes and grow up in a similar environment, but have differently personalities. Christina Ragan of Pennsylvania State University and her colleagues wanted to know if parental favoritism could affect personality. Previous research has shown that rat pups whose mothers licked them a lot were less susceptible to stress than pups from mothers that didn’t spend as much time grooming them. Ragan watched mother rats interact with their pups and counted how often each pup in a litter was licked in the first week of life. She found large differences in maternal attention, with the most-groomed pups in a litter getting two to three times more attention from mom than the least licked sibling, Ragan showed in a presentation at the neuroscience meeting.
Notably, usually the pups that got the most maternal attention sought it. Ragan found no connection between maternal attention and the amount of a stress hormone each pup produced. But she did find that pups that got the most attention from mom were also quicker to approach stranger rats. Pups that got less attention took longer to seek social contact with an unfamiliar rat. The difference between siblings evened out in adulthood. Ragan also saw that pups that actively sought attention from their mothers, but didn’t get it, hung back from interacting with rats they didn’t know. “Early interactions with mom can influence later social interactions,” she says.
Thursday, April 16, 2009
applications 5.app.993 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
If fertility had a shape, this would be it.
Scientists have figured out the exact shape of part of a protein that sits on the outside of the egg and aids in fertilization. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire The results, which may ultimately lead to new contraceptives and treatments for infertility, appear in the Dec. 4 Nature. http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us
On its quest to fertilize an egg, a sperm cell must first get through the outer layer of the egg. Proteins composing this outer layer — called the zona pellucida — have two major jobs during fertilization. The first is to recognize that a sperm cell is from the correct species, and the second is to tighten into a solid shell that seals off the egg as soon as the first lucky sperm penetrates. http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us This barrier prevents other sperm from fertilizing the egg, an event that would be lethal.
While some key players in the zona pellucida are known, scientists continue to search for clues on how sperm and egg join. “We still don’t understand the molecular nature of the initial interactions between the sperm and the egg,” says researcher Sarah Conner, of the University of Birmingham in England.
A research team led by Luca Jovine at the Karolinska Institute in Huddinge, Sweden aimed to examine a small part of the process in great detail. In mice and humans, each of the key zona pellucida proteins — called ZP2 and ZP3 — has a piece called the ZP-N domain. Mice that lack either of the two key zona pellucida proteins that have the ZP-N domain are completely infertile. The ZP-N domain is required for the initial formation of the coat of proteins around the egg, without which fertilization is impossible. ZP-N may also help proteins “tighten the net” around the egg to prevent another sperm from entering, says Jovine.
Jovine’s team solved the structure of a mouse ZP-N region using a technique called X-ray crystallography, which identifies the three-dimensional location of every atom in a protein. Once the researchers knew the ZP-N region’s shape, they compared it to the structures of other, unrelated proteins. The team found that the type of fold in the ZP-N is a twist on a well-known protein shape called the immunoglobulin domain.
Paul Wassarman, a researcher at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, calls the new structure data an “extremely important contribution to the area of fertilization.”
And it turns out that the ZP-N region is not just important for fertilization. Solving the ZP-N structure could have “widespread implications,” says Wassarman, who originally identified the key zona pellucida protein ZP3. Hundreds more proteins have shapes similar to the one seen in ZP-N, says Wassarman, including proteins in the brain and some implicated in cancer. But the most immediate task will likely be to use the ZP-N structure data to solve mysteries of conception.Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Such applications to human fertility will require much more study. Jovine cautions that knowing the structure of the mouse ZP-N is “just a first step.” But female contraceptives targeted to the zona pellucida proteins on the egg could theoretically prevent any sperm from fertilizing the egg. Such an approach would be much more specific than current hormone-based forms of contraception, says Jovine. These kinds of studies could result not only in a new way to prevent fertilization, but also in new ways to promote conception in cases of infertility.
“There’s going to be a lot of work coming out in the next couple of years,” Wassarman predicts.
Scientists have figured out the exact shape of part of a protein that sits on the outside of the egg and aids in fertilization. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire The results, which may ultimately lead to new contraceptives and treatments for infertility, appear in the Dec. 4 Nature. http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us
On its quest to fertilize an egg, a sperm cell must first get through the outer layer of the egg. Proteins composing this outer layer — called the zona pellucida — have two major jobs during fertilization. The first is to recognize that a sperm cell is from the correct species, and the second is to tighten into a solid shell that seals off the egg as soon as the first lucky sperm penetrates. http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us This barrier prevents other sperm from fertilizing the egg, an event that would be lethal.
While some key players in the zona pellucida are known, scientists continue to search for clues on how sperm and egg join. “We still don’t understand the molecular nature of the initial interactions between the sperm and the egg,” says researcher Sarah Conner, of the University of Birmingham in England.
A research team led by Luca Jovine at the Karolinska Institute in Huddinge, Sweden aimed to examine a small part of the process in great detail. In mice and humans, each of the key zona pellucida proteins — called ZP2 and ZP3 — has a piece called the ZP-N domain. Mice that lack either of the two key zona pellucida proteins that have the ZP-N domain are completely infertile. The ZP-N domain is required for the initial formation of the coat of proteins around the egg, without which fertilization is impossible. ZP-N may also help proteins “tighten the net” around the egg to prevent another sperm from entering, says Jovine.
Jovine’s team solved the structure of a mouse ZP-N region using a technique called X-ray crystallography, which identifies the three-dimensional location of every atom in a protein. Once the researchers knew the ZP-N region’s shape, they compared it to the structures of other, unrelated proteins. The team found that the type of fold in the ZP-N is a twist on a well-known protein shape called the immunoglobulin domain.
Paul Wassarman, a researcher at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, calls the new structure data an “extremely important contribution to the area of fertilization.”
And it turns out that the ZP-N region is not just important for fertilization. Solving the ZP-N structure could have “widespread implications,” says Wassarman, who originally identified the key zona pellucida protein ZP3. Hundreds more proteins have shapes similar to the one seen in ZP-N, says Wassarman, including proteins in the brain and some implicated in cancer. But the most immediate task will likely be to use the ZP-N structure data to solve mysteries of conception.Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Such applications to human fertility will require much more study. Jovine cautions that knowing the structure of the mouse ZP-N is “just a first step.” But female contraceptives targeted to the zona pellucida proteins on the egg could theoretically prevent any sperm from fertilizing the egg. Such an approach would be much more specific than current hormone-based forms of contraception, says Jovine. These kinds of studies could result not only in a new way to prevent fertilization, but also in new ways to promote conception in cases of infertility.
“There’s going to be a lot of work coming out in the next couple of years,” Wassarman predicts.
Monday, April 13, 2009
pose 6.pos.3 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Babies delivered by cesarean section a week or two before the recommended 39 weeks of pregnancy face a heightened risk of respiratory problems and other complications, researchers report in the Jan. 8 New England Journal of Medicine. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.ORG Being born late isn’t good either, the study finds. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Scientists consider normal human gestation to be 39 to 40 weeks, which is about nine months. Doctors have adopted some leeway in this calculation, considering a baby to be “full term” if delivered at 37 weeks or later.
But past research had raised questions about early deliveries, and practice guidelines urge women to hang on until 39 or 40 weeks before delivering. Mainly, this extra time allows for full development of the fetus’ lungs. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.ORG
In the new study, obstetric gynecologist Alan Tita of the University of Alabama at Birmingham and his colleagues collected birthing data at 19 medical facilities in the United States. The team identified more than 13,000 cases in which a woman had delivered by elective (nonemergency) cesarean section at 37 weeks or later, having had a previous cesarean delivery at some point. The researchers excluded from the analysis women who had medical problems, had an emergency cesarean or had already begun labor before undergoing a cesarean.
Roughly one-third of these women delivered before reaching the 39-week point in the pregnancy. The researchers found that 15 percent of babies delivered at 37 weeks had a complication, compared with 8 percent of those delivered at 39 weeks. Complications included respiratory problems, low blood sugar and a blood infection, or the need to go to the intensive care unit, get resuscitated, put on a ventilator or stay in the hospital more than five days.
Common complications were respiratory distress and transient tachypnea. Infants with these complications struggle to breathe and have trouble clearing fluid from their lungs. One or the other of these problems showed up in the 37-week group more than twice as often as in the 39-week babies.
Meanwhile, the researchers found that 11 percent of babies born at 38 weeks — one week short of nine months —had complications, a rate somewhat higher than the 8 percent of the 39-week group.
Those born at 40 weeks were not more likely to have problems, but babies born after 41 or 42 weeks faced risks similar to those born at 38 and 37 weeks, respectively.
A closer look at these women shows that those delivering earlier were more likely to be married, white and privately insured than those delivering at 39 weeks or later, says obstetric gynecologist Michael Greene of Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, who didn’t participate in the study. The early deliverers may have placed a premium on having their own doctors perform the cesarean, which requires planning and scheduling, he says.
The risks of such early deliveries are now clearer, Tita says. “This study brings some of these problems to the fore. Hopefully, with this publication, some of these practices will change,” he says.
But there remains at least one major confounding factor in all this: The risk of stillbirth is greatest at 39 weeks or more. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Roughly one in 1,000 full-term births end in stillbirth. These cases of fetal death can be traced to many factors, including bacterial infections, umbilical cord problems, trauma, drug or alcohol consumption by the mother or high blood pressure in the mother.
Biology also plays a role in stillbirth risk. As a fetus grows, its metabolic needs increase and it demands more nourishment and oxygen, says Bryan Richardson, an obstetric gynecologist at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada. As the fetus begins to tax its nutrient supply, he says, “its tolerance for an emergency lessens,” and that increases the risk of stillbirth should a problem strike very late in pregnancy.
Delivering a viable fetus at 37 or 38 weeks eliminates the risk of stillbirth occurring later. But it remains unknown whether avoiding the slight risk of stillbirth outweighs the other risks shown in this study that result from early delivery, says Greene. “This is interesting and useful information, but the stillbirth risk is not accounted for,” he concludes.
* Print
* |
* Comment
Found in: Biology and Body & Brain
Share & Save
* slashdot slashdot
* digg digg
* facebook facebook
* yahoo yahoo
* del.icio.us del.icio.us
* reddit reddit
* google google
* technorati technorati
Comments 1
* This is excellent information. When I studied nursing back in the Dark Ages (the 1970s), we already knew that it was better for those relatively affluent moms NOT to schedule their Caesareans for frivolous reasons, like wanting to have it on so-and-so's birthday, the day before so-and-so's wedding anniversary, the day after so-and-so's golf tournament, and so on (all reasons I actually heard), or less frivolous reasons like wanting it to be born when Dad was home on leave from the armed services. WE knew it was better for baby to wait and be delivered at full term, but it was hard to convince MOM. This study should give medical personnel the ammunition they need to convince her to wait. Unless, of course, there's a MEDICAL reason to deliver early.
Scientists consider normal human gestation to be 39 to 40 weeks, which is about nine months. Doctors have adopted some leeway in this calculation, considering a baby to be “full term” if delivered at 37 weeks or later.
But past research had raised questions about early deliveries, and practice guidelines urge women to hang on until 39 or 40 weeks before delivering. Mainly, this extra time allows for full development of the fetus’ lungs. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.ORG
In the new study, obstetric gynecologist Alan Tita of the University of Alabama at Birmingham and his colleagues collected birthing data at 19 medical facilities in the United States. The team identified more than 13,000 cases in which a woman had delivered by elective (nonemergency) cesarean section at 37 weeks or later, having had a previous cesarean delivery at some point. The researchers excluded from the analysis women who had medical problems, had an emergency cesarean or had already begun labor before undergoing a cesarean.
Roughly one-third of these women delivered before reaching the 39-week point in the pregnancy. The researchers found that 15 percent of babies delivered at 37 weeks had a complication, compared with 8 percent of those delivered at 39 weeks. Complications included respiratory problems, low blood sugar and a blood infection, or the need to go to the intensive care unit, get resuscitated, put on a ventilator or stay in the hospital more than five days.
Common complications were respiratory distress and transient tachypnea. Infants with these complications struggle to breathe and have trouble clearing fluid from their lungs. One or the other of these problems showed up in the 37-week group more than twice as often as in the 39-week babies.
Meanwhile, the researchers found that 11 percent of babies born at 38 weeks — one week short of nine months —had complications, a rate somewhat higher than the 8 percent of the 39-week group.
Those born at 40 weeks were not more likely to have problems, but babies born after 41 or 42 weeks faced risks similar to those born at 38 and 37 weeks, respectively.
A closer look at these women shows that those delivering earlier were more likely to be married, white and privately insured than those delivering at 39 weeks or later, says obstetric gynecologist Michael Greene of Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, who didn’t participate in the study. The early deliverers may have placed a premium on having their own doctors perform the cesarean, which requires planning and scheduling, he says.
The risks of such early deliveries are now clearer, Tita says. “This study brings some of these problems to the fore. Hopefully, with this publication, some of these practices will change,” he says.
But there remains at least one major confounding factor in all this: The risk of stillbirth is greatest at 39 weeks or more. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Roughly one in 1,000 full-term births end in stillbirth. These cases of fetal death can be traced to many factors, including bacterial infections, umbilical cord problems, trauma, drug or alcohol consumption by the mother or high blood pressure in the mother.
Biology also plays a role in stillbirth risk. As a fetus grows, its metabolic needs increase and it demands more nourishment and oxygen, says Bryan Richardson, an obstetric gynecologist at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada. As the fetus begins to tax its nutrient supply, he says, “its tolerance for an emergency lessens,” and that increases the risk of stillbirth should a problem strike very late in pregnancy.
Delivering a viable fetus at 37 or 38 weeks eliminates the risk of stillbirth occurring later. But it remains unknown whether avoiding the slight risk of stillbirth outweighs the other risks shown in this study that result from early delivery, says Greene. “This is interesting and useful information, but the stillbirth risk is not accounted for,” he concludes.
* |
* Comment
Found in: Biology and Body & Brain
Share & Save
* slashdot slashdot
* digg digg
* facebook facebook
* yahoo yahoo
* del.icio.us del.icio.us
* reddit reddit
* google google
* technorati technorati
Comments 1
* This is excellent information. When I studied nursing back in the Dark Ages (the 1970s), we already knew that it was better for those relatively affluent moms NOT to schedule their Caesareans for frivolous reasons, like wanting to have it on so-and-so's birthday, the day before so-and-so's wedding anniversary, the day after so-and-so's golf tournament, and so on (all reasons I actually heard), or less frivolous reasons like wanting it to be born when Dad was home on leave from the armed services. WE knew it was better for baby to wait and be delivered at full term, but it was hard to convince MOM. This study should give medical personnel the ammunition they need to convince her to wait. Unless, of course, there's a MEDICAL reason to deliver early.
team 1.tea.983 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Avalanches, vicious winds and sub-zero temperatures aren’t the only extremes endured by those who climb Mount Everest. Hypoxia, a lack of oxygen that can lead to cell death, also threatens. But a study of people ascending Mount Everest’s slopes suggests that some humans are especially tolerant of low oxygen levels, perhaps because their bodies use oxygen more efficiently. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO The findings, reported in the Jan. 8 New England Journal of Medicine, could inform the treatment of critically ill patients struggling to breathe in hospitals.
The new work reports the lowest recorded blood oxygen levels in a nonhibernating mammal. It is also one of the first analyses to come out of a much larger investigation of more than 200 people who made the trek to Everest in an effort to understand how the body adapts to low oxygen levels.
Patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, septic shock and other critical ailments often have severely low levels of blood oxygen. Treatment often involves administering oxygen with a mask, or mechanically ventilating the lungs, a harsh procedure that can do more harm than good, says Michael Grocott of University College London, lead author of the new study. But because the health of such patients is compromised and many variables are involved, studying the effect of low oxygen alone isn’t easy.
“So many things are going on that separating out oxygen is difficult,” says Grocott. Basic questions still loom, he says. “Why do some people adapt well while others seem to struggle?”
Typically studies of how the body responds to low levels of oxygen are conducted in a hypobaric chamber that simulates the effects of high altitudes. But Grocott’s team surmised that the expense and persuasion required to get 200 healthy people to sit in a metal box for three weeks might be skirted if those people could be convinced to climb the 5,300 meters to the Everest base camp. The Caudwell Xtreme Everest expedition was born. In April and May of 2007 more than 200 people, age 18 to 73, made the trek, making themselves available to more than 60 doctors and scientists aiming to get at why some people fare better than others in the thin air at the tallest peak on Earth.
access
Enlargemagnify
TESTING THE ASCENTClimbers of Mount Everest stop at the Balcony (8,400 meters) to give blood samples to researchers. Data from this work show that people who can reach this altitude tolerate the lowest known blood oxygen levels observed in nonhibernating mammals.Caudwell Xtreme Everest
The research team sampled blood, analyzing oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, pH and concentrations of lactate and hemoglobin. Ten subjects were sampled in London (75 meters above sea level). Nine were sampled at the Everest base camp (5,300 m). These individuals, all healthy climbers, then tackled Everest’s southeast ridge. Small shelters were constructed along the route and blood was taken from climbers’ groin arteries. Samples were taken at Camp 2 (6,400 m), from six people at Camp 3 (7,100 m) and finally at what is known as the Balcony (8,400 m) from the four people who made it to the summit and were available for testing (8,848m). Samples taken higher than the base camp were quickly brought to a lab set up at Camp 2 for analysis. Bad weather prohibited taking samples at the summit.
Supplemental oxygen was used only at or above 7,100 m, but samples were only taken after people had been breathing the ambient air for several minutes or hours.
At the highest altitudes, the subjects showed an impressive adaptive response, says Grocott. Most people would pass out after two to three minutes in such altitudes, these climbers were not only conscious, but also clearly communicated by radio and performed complication-free sampling. The blood oxygen levels of the four tested climbers were startlingly low — the lowest a mere 19.1 millimeters mercury, the researchers report. In patients, levels below 60 mm Hg are cause for concern, Grocott says.
The findings suggest that the amount of oxygen alone isn’t the secret to physiological success. Other factors could be how much oxygen a person’s hemoglobin can carry, or the efficiency of the cellular factories known as mitochondria, which use the oxygen.
“There’s a significant possibility that some people may just be more efficient,” Grocott says.
Even among the four climbers tested at 8,400 meters, there was individual variation in measured variables such as blood oxygen levels and pH. This physiological variation among people fits with recent work done by Cynthia Beall of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland.
“This shows that healthy people have a huge range of variation in being able to respond to stress,” says Beall. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Her investigations of the physiology of Tibetans and other highlanders suggest that a major gene is involved in how much oxygen hemoglobin transport throughout the body. (The Everest team is also looking into the genetics of adaptation to high altitudes.)
Beall tips her hat to the field team. “To have the audacity to think about doing this work — and then to do it! I’m very impressed. The difficulty of taking the measurements alone, and adapting the equipment — they did a beautiful job.” http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO
The results suggest that at high altitudes the problem isn’t the lack of oxygen, but the body’s ability to deliver and use it, comments Paul Firth of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. An analysis of mortality rates on Mount Everest by Firth and colleagues appeared in the British Medical Journal in December. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO “People don’t run out of gas,” he says, “the delivery deteriorates.” Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
The new work reports the lowest recorded blood oxygen levels in a nonhibernating mammal. It is also one of the first analyses to come out of a much larger investigation of more than 200 people who made the trek to Everest in an effort to understand how the body adapts to low oxygen levels.
Patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, septic shock and other critical ailments often have severely low levels of blood oxygen. Treatment often involves administering oxygen with a mask, or mechanically ventilating the lungs, a harsh procedure that can do more harm than good, says Michael Grocott of University College London, lead author of the new study. But because the health of such patients is compromised and many variables are involved, studying the effect of low oxygen alone isn’t easy.
“So many things are going on that separating out oxygen is difficult,” says Grocott. Basic questions still loom, he says. “Why do some people adapt well while others seem to struggle?”
Typically studies of how the body responds to low levels of oxygen are conducted in a hypobaric chamber that simulates the effects of high altitudes. But Grocott’s team surmised that the expense and persuasion required to get 200 healthy people to sit in a metal box for three weeks might be skirted if those people could be convinced to climb the 5,300 meters to the Everest base camp. The Caudwell Xtreme Everest expedition was born. In April and May of 2007 more than 200 people, age 18 to 73, made the trek, making themselves available to more than 60 doctors and scientists aiming to get at why some people fare better than others in the thin air at the tallest peak on Earth.
access
Enlargemagnify
TESTING THE ASCENTClimbers of Mount Everest stop at the Balcony (8,400 meters) to give blood samples to researchers. Data from this work show that people who can reach this altitude tolerate the lowest known blood oxygen levels observed in nonhibernating mammals.Caudwell Xtreme Everest
The research team sampled blood, analyzing oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, pH and concentrations of lactate and hemoglobin. Ten subjects were sampled in London (75 meters above sea level). Nine were sampled at the Everest base camp (5,300 m). These individuals, all healthy climbers, then tackled Everest’s southeast ridge. Small shelters were constructed along the route and blood was taken from climbers’ groin arteries. Samples were taken at Camp 2 (6,400 m), from six people at Camp 3 (7,100 m) and finally at what is known as the Balcony (8,400 m) from the four people who made it to the summit and were available for testing (8,848m). Samples taken higher than the base camp were quickly brought to a lab set up at Camp 2 for analysis. Bad weather prohibited taking samples at the summit.
Supplemental oxygen was used only at or above 7,100 m, but samples were only taken after people had been breathing the ambient air for several minutes or hours.
At the highest altitudes, the subjects showed an impressive adaptive response, says Grocott. Most people would pass out after two to three minutes in such altitudes, these climbers were not only conscious, but also clearly communicated by radio and performed complication-free sampling. The blood oxygen levels of the four tested climbers were startlingly low — the lowest a mere 19.1 millimeters mercury, the researchers report. In patients, levels below 60 mm Hg are cause for concern, Grocott says.
The findings suggest that the amount of oxygen alone isn’t the secret to physiological success. Other factors could be how much oxygen a person’s hemoglobin can carry, or the efficiency of the cellular factories known as mitochondria, which use the oxygen.
“There’s a significant possibility that some people may just be more efficient,” Grocott says.
Even among the four climbers tested at 8,400 meters, there was individual variation in measured variables such as blood oxygen levels and pH. This physiological variation among people fits with recent work done by Cynthia Beall of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland.
“This shows that healthy people have a huge range of variation in being able to respond to stress,” says Beall. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Her investigations of the physiology of Tibetans and other highlanders suggest that a major gene is involved in how much oxygen hemoglobin transport throughout the body. (The Everest team is also looking into the genetics of adaptation to high altitudes.)
Beall tips her hat to the field team. “To have the audacity to think about doing this work — and then to do it! I’m very impressed. The difficulty of taking the measurements alone, and adapting the equipment — they did a beautiful job.” http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO
The results suggest that at high altitudes the problem isn’t the lack of oxygen, but the body’s ability to deliver and use it, comments Paul Firth of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. An analysis of mortality rates on Mount Everest by Firth and colleagues appeared in the British Medical Journal in December. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO “People don’t run out of gas,” he says, “the delivery deteriorates.” Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Saturday, April 11, 2009
mrsa 9.mrs.11001.2 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
A sunburn and sand between the toes may not be all you take home from a day at the beach. An antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria known as MRSA lurks in ocean water and perhaps in sand, Lisa Plano of the University of Miami’s Miller School of Medicine reported February 13 at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
In a talk titled “What happens at the beach doesn’t always stay at the beach,” Plano reported on an epidemiological study of beachgoers. Of 1,303 adult bathers at a popular beach in south Florida, 37 percent came into contact with the usually harmless Staphylococcus aureus microbe in the ocean water. http://Louis-j-sheehan.com Each of the study participants waded into the ocean, dunked underwater three times and collected a sample of the surrounding seawater in a clean jug. http://Louis-j-sheehan.com
Researchers then analyzed the seawater samples to find out what bacteria hitched a ride. A small percentage of the S. aureus samples proved to be the particularly dangerous strain of the microbe MRSA, which plagues hospitals, prisons and locker rooms.
Preliminary evidence suggests that S. aureus is also present in the beach sand.
Follow-up interviews with study participants turned up no links between exposure and subsequent infections. “You shouldn’t fear the beach,” Plano says. “Go. Have fun. Embrace it.” To prevent “sharing your organisms” with other beachgoers and to protect yourself from the bacteria, Plano recommends showering with soap before and after a beach visit.
* Print
* |
* Comment
Found in: Biomedicine, Environment and Science & Society
Share & Save
* slashdot slashdot
* digg digg
* facebook facebook
* yahoo yahoo
* del.icio.us del.icio.us
* reddit reddit
* google google
* technorati technorati
Comments 6
* Fortunately Cathy, there is a new chemical being researched that comes from a sea sponge and blocks all bacteria from resistance to antibiotics. So far they are testing it on every single bacteria, and so far it has cleared the way for antibiotics to do the work they have faltered in recently. I am sure that that must have been a terrifying ordeal; I can't imagine the feelings at having to see both you and the rest of your family attacked by this infection. Have you seen "Lorenzo's Oil"? It is a very moving film and I think your family of all people could identify with it. Good luck in fighting the infection, more people need to know about these things.
Tyler Albers Tyler Albers
Feb. 19, 2009 at 4:59pm
* Hello everyone,
Our family was viciously attacked by MRSA and we nearly lost all of our lives.
We almost lost our oldest son to it within 72 hrs.
MRSA also attacked my youngest son and myself.
The boils that my son's had grew to the size of small grapefruits and destroy the flesh in the surrounding area.
As you can imagine we were horrified. We sought out medical intervention and antibiotics failed to help. our doctor threw several antibiotics at my son's infection. The antibiotics failed to keep the infection from coming back.
After speaking to an infectious disease doctor, doing my own research and networking with others struggling with MRSA,
I came to the conclusion that MRSA is rapidly evolving and becoming resistant to all antibiotics.
At that point we decided to run from this vicious cycle of throwing antibiotics at an antibiotic resistant infection. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
We prayed and researched until we found something that would save our family.
MRSA was literally eating away at us and what we found stopped MRSA from killing us. It is called Allimed, stable allicin.
This is the first time in history that allicin in garlic has been stabilized.
Since we used Allimed we did not need further medical care though we informed our doctors of our decision and continued under their observation.
We dealt with MRSA ourselves and have not had it return for any of us in 3 years.
Before using Allimed the boils were coming every few weeks.
If we are to survive this era of resistant bacteria, then we will have to think outside the box. What once saved us from infections (antibiotics), is now killing us. The very nature of antibiotics encourage bacterial resistance.
Shortly after Penicillin was discovered, bacteria became resistant and now we find ourselves in the vicious cycle of throwing more and more antibiotics at resistant bacteria. http://www.fda.gov/Fdac/features/795_antibio.html
We must see that the era of antibiotic success is now leaving us. If we don't have our eyes wide open, mankind may not survive this pandemic.
I hope our story will help to save lives as our family was saved.
Since our family's recovery, we have been helping others to recover worldwide.
I welcome emails from anyone who wants our help.
God bless, Cathy
Cathy@optimalhealthusa.com
Our MRSA recovery and more info: http://optimalhealthusa.com/
Scientific Research Files:
Current news reports regarding stable allicin:
250 people recover from MRSA using stable Allicin:
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,365884,00.html
Current news reports regarding stable allicin:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7531978.stm
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Dj6C6aEyrYk
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=KSObBa5b0Bw&feature=related
EUROPEAN SOCIETY OF CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/eccmid15/abstract.asp?id=37436
Abstract, Dr. Ronald Cutler:
http://optimalhealthusa.com/files/ALLICIN_MRSA_DRCutler_Paper_1_.pdf
Cathy P Cathy P
Feb. 18, 2009 at 8:51pm
* Where would one get MEDlhoney and/or herbal MRSA treatment? Is there a website or a recipe to make these products? I am interested.
Nina Ravey bert
Feb. 17, 2009 at 5:05pm
* Both my older sons have had MRSA during their college football careers. The first one who had MRSA in 06 was on and off antibiotics for 10 months until we found MEDIhoney and he fianlly got rid of it. He uses Medihoney when ever he has a spot that looks like staph. My middle son just had MRSA in October very quickly turned serious and need surgery and IV antibiotics. The same infectious disease MD saked why I needed him because I have my MEDIhoney and let me put it on the wounds. He missed one week of practice and one game. Mrsa cleared fast with Phisohex, Medihoney and @ IV antibiotics. He also uses medihoney on all skin injuries and wounds.
linda weinmaster linda weinmaster
Feb. 16, 2009 at 6:47pm
* Jo, I don't think there is a cure yet. This is not an infection you can treat this infection lightly. If the bug gets into your circulation, they spread rapidly in the body result in abscess in organs like bones, brain and kidney. You need to treat it fast and properly with high dose antibiotics.
I have worked as a doctor for 25 years, seen children dying with this infection. If we don't find a cure fast then we are all in trouble. The bug is bringing medical profession to its knees.
Kadiyali Srivatsa Kadiyali Srivatsa Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Feb. 16, 2009 at 4:40am
* There is a cure for this and it is not getting around because it is too cheap... no money in a "cure". I got it and used it. It will kill on contact and not leave a scar.
There are also a lot of herbal remedies that will take care of the problem without discomfort. alkavitahealth is one place another is to simply google "herbal MRSA treatment"
In a talk titled “What happens at the beach doesn’t always stay at the beach,” Plano reported on an epidemiological study of beachgoers. Of 1,303 adult bathers at a popular beach in south Florida, 37 percent came into contact with the usually harmless Staphylococcus aureus microbe in the ocean water. http://Louis-j-sheehan.com Each of the study participants waded into the ocean, dunked underwater three times and collected a sample of the surrounding seawater in a clean jug. http://Louis-j-sheehan.com
Researchers then analyzed the seawater samples to find out what bacteria hitched a ride. A small percentage of the S. aureus samples proved to be the particularly dangerous strain of the microbe MRSA, which plagues hospitals, prisons and locker rooms.
Preliminary evidence suggests that S. aureus is also present in the beach sand.
Follow-up interviews with study participants turned up no links between exposure and subsequent infections. “You shouldn’t fear the beach,” Plano says. “Go. Have fun. Embrace it.” To prevent “sharing your organisms” with other beachgoers and to protect yourself from the bacteria, Plano recommends showering with soap before and after a beach visit.
* |
* Comment
Found in: Biomedicine, Environment and Science & Society
Share & Save
* slashdot slashdot
* digg digg
* facebook facebook
* yahoo yahoo
* del.icio.us del.icio.us
* reddit reddit
* google google
* technorati technorati
Comments 6
* Fortunately Cathy, there is a new chemical being researched that comes from a sea sponge and blocks all bacteria from resistance to antibiotics. So far they are testing it on every single bacteria, and so far it has cleared the way for antibiotics to do the work they have faltered in recently. I am sure that that must have been a terrifying ordeal; I can't imagine the feelings at having to see both you and the rest of your family attacked by this infection. Have you seen "Lorenzo's Oil"? It is a very moving film and I think your family of all people could identify with it. Good luck in fighting the infection, more people need to know about these things.
Tyler Albers Tyler Albers
Feb. 19, 2009 at 4:59pm
* Hello everyone,
Our family was viciously attacked by MRSA and we nearly lost all of our lives.
We almost lost our oldest son to it within 72 hrs.
MRSA also attacked my youngest son and myself.
The boils that my son's had grew to the size of small grapefruits and destroy the flesh in the surrounding area.
As you can imagine we were horrified. We sought out medical intervention and antibiotics failed to help. our doctor threw several antibiotics at my son's infection. The antibiotics failed to keep the infection from coming back.
After speaking to an infectious disease doctor, doing my own research and networking with others struggling with MRSA,
I came to the conclusion that MRSA is rapidly evolving and becoming resistant to all antibiotics.
At that point we decided to run from this vicious cycle of throwing antibiotics at an antibiotic resistant infection. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
We prayed and researched until we found something that would save our family.
MRSA was literally eating away at us and what we found stopped MRSA from killing us. It is called Allimed, stable allicin.
This is the first time in history that allicin in garlic has been stabilized.
Since we used Allimed we did not need further medical care though we informed our doctors of our decision and continued under their observation.
We dealt with MRSA ourselves and have not had it return for any of us in 3 years.
Before using Allimed the boils were coming every few weeks.
If we are to survive this era of resistant bacteria, then we will have to think outside the box. What once saved us from infections (antibiotics), is now killing us. The very nature of antibiotics encourage bacterial resistance.
Shortly after Penicillin was discovered, bacteria became resistant and now we find ourselves in the vicious cycle of throwing more and more antibiotics at resistant bacteria. http://www.fda.gov/Fdac/features/795_antibio.html
We must see that the era of antibiotic success is now leaving us. If we don't have our eyes wide open, mankind may not survive this pandemic.
I hope our story will help to save lives as our family was saved.
Since our family's recovery, we have been helping others to recover worldwide.
I welcome emails from anyone who wants our help.
God bless, Cathy
Cathy@optimalhealthusa.com
Our MRSA recovery and more info: http://optimalhealthusa.com/
Scientific Research Files:
Current news reports regarding stable allicin:
250 people recover from MRSA using stable Allicin:
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,365884,00.html
Current news reports regarding stable allicin:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7531978.stm
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Dj6C6aEyrYk
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=KSObBa5b0Bw&feature=related
EUROPEAN SOCIETY OF CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/eccmid15/abstract.asp?id=37436
Abstract, Dr. Ronald Cutler:
http://optimalhealthusa.com/files/ALLICIN_MRSA_DRCutler_Paper_1_.pdf
Cathy P Cathy P
Feb. 18, 2009 at 8:51pm
* Where would one get MEDlhoney and/or herbal MRSA treatment? Is there a website or a recipe to make these products? I am interested.
Nina Ravey bert
Feb. 17, 2009 at 5:05pm
* Both my older sons have had MRSA during their college football careers. The first one who had MRSA in 06 was on and off antibiotics for 10 months until we found MEDIhoney and he fianlly got rid of it. He uses Medihoney when ever he has a spot that looks like staph. My middle son just had MRSA in October very quickly turned serious and need surgery and IV antibiotics. The same infectious disease MD saked why I needed him because I have my MEDIhoney and let me put it on the wounds. He missed one week of practice and one game. Mrsa cleared fast with Phisohex, Medihoney and @ IV antibiotics. He also uses medihoney on all skin injuries and wounds.
linda weinmaster linda weinmaster
Feb. 16, 2009 at 6:47pm
* Jo, I don't think there is a cure yet. This is not an infection you can treat this infection lightly. If the bug gets into your circulation, they spread rapidly in the body result in abscess in organs like bones, brain and kidney. You need to treat it fast and properly with high dose antibiotics.
I have worked as a doctor for 25 years, seen children dying with this infection. If we don't find a cure fast then we are all in trouble. The bug is bringing medical profession to its knees.
Kadiyali Srivatsa Kadiyali Srivatsa Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Feb. 16, 2009 at 4:40am
* There is a cure for this and it is not getting around because it is too cheap... no money in a "cure". I got it and used it. It will kill on contact and not leave a scar.
There are also a lot of herbal remedies that will take care of the problem without discomfort. alkavitahealth is one place another is to simply google "herbal MRSA treatment"
Saturday, January 10, 2009
fish 2.fis.001002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
When you're sick, you might take medications to help you fight off infection, lower a fever or clear a stuffy nose. But once those drugs leave your body, chances are they will find their way into nearby lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.
Drugs end up in a body of water because you excrete them in urine. When you flush a toilet, the wastewater travels to a treatment plant. There, bacteria and other material are filtered out and the cleaned water is returned to natural bodies of water. The trouble is, wastewater treatment plants don't filter out drugs. Some people even flush unused drugs down the toilet, only adding to the problem. http://ljsheehan.livejournal.com
While medications are meant to help a person feel better, they're not good for wildlife. Over the past several years, scientists have begun to test how common drugs are in freshwater ecosystems. Researchers also are starting to learn more about how medications meant for humans affect the animals that accidentally ingest the drugs. http://ljsheehan.livejournal.com
Recently, several scientists tested how a group of drugs called antidepressants affects freshwater fish. For many people with an illness called depression, antidepressants can be lifesavers. People with depression may feel sad or anxious for extremely long periods of time, lose interest in activities they once enjoyed and have difficulty sleeping or concentrating. Antidepressants help improve these symptoms for some people.
Several years ago, researchers discovered that some species of fish living near wastewater treatment plants had antidepressants in their brains. "Pretty much any water sample in the vicinity of a wastewater treatment plant will test positive for some group of antidepressants," says chemist Melissa Schultz, of the College of Wooster in Ohio. This finding inspired a number of scientists to learn how these drugs affect fish and other wildlife.
access
Enlargemagnify
GOING VERTICALSome hybrid striped bass exposed to the antidepressant Prozac eventually began hanging vertically in the water — a highly unlikely pose — and stopped eating.Clemson University’s Institute of Environmental Toxicology
In their experiments, researchers exposed species of fish in a laboratory to different brands of antidepressants. Then, the scientists tested the fishes’ responses to a number of things, such as the cues predators make or the appearance of prey animals.
The researchers found that antidepressants affect fish species in numerous ways, from diminishing their response to predators to slowing down their prey-hunting techniques. One unexpected result even showed that a type of antidepressant called fluoxetine acts like estrogen, a primarily female hormone, when in the bodies of adult male fathead minnows.
Fluoxetine, sold under the brand name Prozac, caused these male minnows to produce an egg protein normally made only by females. In addition, males exposed to fluoxetine did not make the bright colors and facial bumps usually used to attract mates. More testing needs to be done to determine whether these changes affect minnows' ability to mate.
It's important to keep in mind that in any lake or stream, fish and other organisms aren't just exposed to antidepressants, Schultz says. Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, and even caffeine all make their way through water treatment plants and back into the environment. What happens to fish and other animals when they're exposed to all of these drugs in combination? For now, nobody knows, Schultz says – leaving the door open to many future research questions.
Power words:
Antibiotic: a type of drug that kills off bacteria or other microorganisms.
Antidepressants: a group of drugs that help improve the symptoms of an illness called depression.
Anti-inflammatory: a type of drug that lowers fevers and inflammation, or swelling.
Depression: an illness characterized by long-term feelings of sadness and anxiety, lack of interest in activities, and difficulty sleeping and concentrating.
This still video shows a hybrid striped bass quickly gobbling up four minnows. Fed only once every three days, the bass tended to become very aggressive about downing their prey. But after being exposed to high levels of the antidepressant Prozac, some bass took as long as two minutes to capture their first minnow. Some of the bass didn't finish all four minnows they were given within 25 minutes. Over the nearly month-long experiment, scientists report that a few bass lost their appetites altogether. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.
Drugs end up in a body of water because you excrete them in urine. When you flush a toilet, the wastewater travels to a treatment plant. There, bacteria and other material are filtered out and the cleaned water is returned to natural bodies of water. The trouble is, wastewater treatment plants don't filter out drugs. Some people even flush unused drugs down the toilet, only adding to the problem. http://ljsheehan.livejournal.com
While medications are meant to help a person feel better, they're not good for wildlife. Over the past several years, scientists have begun to test how common drugs are in freshwater ecosystems. Researchers also are starting to learn more about how medications meant for humans affect the animals that accidentally ingest the drugs. http://ljsheehan.livejournal.com
Recently, several scientists tested how a group of drugs called antidepressants affects freshwater fish. For many people with an illness called depression, antidepressants can be lifesavers. People with depression may feel sad or anxious for extremely long periods of time, lose interest in activities they once enjoyed and have difficulty sleeping or concentrating. Antidepressants help improve these symptoms for some people.
Several years ago, researchers discovered that some species of fish living near wastewater treatment plants had antidepressants in their brains. "Pretty much any water sample in the vicinity of a wastewater treatment plant will test positive for some group of antidepressants," says chemist Melissa Schultz, of the College of Wooster in Ohio. This finding inspired a number of scientists to learn how these drugs affect fish and other wildlife.
access
Enlargemagnify
GOING VERTICALSome hybrid striped bass exposed to the antidepressant Prozac eventually began hanging vertically in the water — a highly unlikely pose — and stopped eating.Clemson University’s Institute of Environmental Toxicology
In their experiments, researchers exposed species of fish in a laboratory to different brands of antidepressants. Then, the scientists tested the fishes’ responses to a number of things, such as the cues predators make or the appearance of prey animals.
The researchers found that antidepressants affect fish species in numerous ways, from diminishing their response to predators to slowing down their prey-hunting techniques. One unexpected result even showed that a type of antidepressant called fluoxetine acts like estrogen, a primarily female hormone, when in the bodies of adult male fathead minnows.
Fluoxetine, sold under the brand name Prozac, caused these male minnows to produce an egg protein normally made only by females. In addition, males exposed to fluoxetine did not make the bright colors and facial bumps usually used to attract mates. More testing needs to be done to determine whether these changes affect minnows' ability to mate.
It's important to keep in mind that in any lake or stream, fish and other organisms aren't just exposed to antidepressants, Schultz says. Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, and even caffeine all make their way through water treatment plants and back into the environment. What happens to fish and other animals when they're exposed to all of these drugs in combination? For now, nobody knows, Schultz says – leaving the door open to many future research questions.
Power words:
Antibiotic: a type of drug that kills off bacteria or other microorganisms.
Antidepressants: a group of drugs that help improve the symptoms of an illness called depression.
Anti-inflammatory: a type of drug that lowers fevers and inflammation, or swelling.
Depression: an illness characterized by long-term feelings of sadness and anxiety, lack of interest in activities, and difficulty sleeping and concentrating.
This still video shows a hybrid striped bass quickly gobbling up four minnows. Fed only once every three days, the bass tended to become very aggressive about downing their prey. But after being exposed to high levels of the antidepressant Prozac, some bass took as long as two minutes to capture their first minnow. Some of the bass didn't finish all four minnows they were given within 25 minutes. Over the nearly month-long experiment, scientists report that a few bass lost their appetites altogether. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.
Tuesday, January 6, 2009
invest 4.inv.0001002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire. http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com What the authorities say happened to members of El Camino Church, a gray brick building wedged into a corner of Washington Heights, will not make financial history. No charities will have to close, no endowments will be eviscerated. Millions were not lost, let alone billions.
But when the cost is totaled, court papers and interviews suggest, many of the worshipers at the tiny Christian Evangelical church will have lost all or part of their savings in a Ponzi scheme that operated far beneath the orbit of the wealthy or well-connected.http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com
Federal prosecutors in Manhattan have charged that Bryant Rodriguez, 44, insinuated himself into the congregation last year — he showed up first for baptism classes — and enticed fellow churchgoers to trust their money with him. Now, about $600,000 is gone in a scheme prosecutors call a classic mold of financial grifting — neither sophisticated nor, in hindsight, difficult to see through.
“Obviously these weren’t billionaires,” Allan Weissmann, a postal inspector and spokesman for the United States Postal Inspection Service, said of the parishioners. But he added: “It’s all relative. It means a lot to them. It’s their life savings in many cases, and they, too, are devastated.”
The authorities said that Mr. Rodriguez asked parishioners to invest in an electronics firm he represented, which he said wanted “a blessing for a blessing” by providing Jews and Christians with the opportunity to invest in his company, a criminal complaint charges.
A lawyer for Mr. Rodriguez, who is in jail pending a bail hearing, said he did nothing wrong. “There’s no question that he’ll plead not guilty,” the lawyer, Paul J. McAllister, said.
The church, at Audubon Avenue and 172nd Street, occupies a century-old building. It is just a few blocks from Yeshiva University, which says it lost $110 million by investing with Bernard L. Madoff, who stands accused of one of the largest financial frauds in history, a Ponzi scheme involving up to $50 billion.
One night this week a few dozen worshipers gathered for a regular service in the basement of El Camino. As a conga player, a keyboard player and a guitarist played in the background, the group sang a Spanish version of “Silent Night,” their hands outstretched, their palms up.
At the end of the service, the pastor, the Rev. Miguel Amadis, addressed the congregation.
“We’re going through a very hard time,” he said. “We have to stay united.”
At least three dozen people invested with Mr. Rodriguez, according to the complaint; the pastor said he and his family alone lost $300,000. All told, according to the complaint, members of the church gave Mr. Rodriguez about $1.1 million, but received back only about $450,000.
Mr. Rodriguez has been charged with one count of mail fraud. “Each of these investors has lost all or part of their investment,” Postal Inspector Eleanor Berry wrote in the complaint, referring to a group of 30 parishioners and their friends.
The complaint said Mr. Rodriguez began taking baptismal classes at the church in 2007, and was later baptized there. He told people that he worked with a company called C & E, and sold electronics to the church and some of its members.http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com
According to the complaint, he said his business sold wholesale electronics to large retailers like Best Buy and P. C. Richard & Son. http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com He promised returns of 30 percent every two weeks, and kept his promise to initial investors, at least for a while. Those investors then brought in other family members until a number of them were hooked.
In one case described in the complaint, a church member gave Mr. Rodriguez about $3,000 in cash in June 2007. Two weeks later, Mr. Rodriguez paid the man about $900, followed by another $900 payment soon thereafter.
The victim told relatives and friends about the opportunity, the complaint says, and they gave Mr. Rodriguez a total of about $57,000. After the investor pressed Mr. Rodriguez last August about his investment, he was given “a loan” of $5,000.
Neither the investor nor his family and friends received any more money from Mr. Rodriguez, the complaint said.
One church member, Alexander Perez, said his family and friends had lost about $80,000.
“He came here telling us he did business with all these big electronics stores,” said Mr. Perez, 30, a construction worker from Washington Heights who has been a member of El Camino for seven years. “We didn’t think there was anything wrong, so we invested with him.”
“It hurts, trust me, it hurts,” Mr. Perez said.
Ana Vasquez, 44, an interior decorator, said she and a friend invested $10,000.
“He paid us at first to get more people interested,” she said. “He told us to find family and friends to invest. He told us that everyone who invested $5,000 would get a bonus of $10,000. To get enough money, a lot of us looked for more people to chip in.”
According to the complaint, retailers have told the authorities that they had no contract with Mr. Rodriguez or any firm he ran.
Mr. Rodriguez has a previous felony conviction for impersonating a United States immigration officer, the complaint says.
In court on Tuesday, Mr. Rodriguez’s lawyer, Mr. McAllister, blamed the church’s pastor, Mr. Amadis, for any money that was lost. Mr. Amadis, referring to Mr. Rodriguez, said, “He’s trying to say that I had something to do with it, but that’s just not true.” No charges have been filed against the pastor.
“He came to us like anyone else comes to the church,” Mr. Amadis said. “When I met this guy, he convinced me he was a true original Christian. Man, this guy could talk. He could convince anybody.” Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.
But when the cost is totaled, court papers and interviews suggest, many of the worshipers at the tiny Christian Evangelical church will have lost all or part of their savings in a Ponzi scheme that operated far beneath the orbit of the wealthy or well-connected.http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com
Federal prosecutors in Manhattan have charged that Bryant Rodriguez, 44, insinuated himself into the congregation last year — he showed up first for baptism classes — and enticed fellow churchgoers to trust their money with him. Now, about $600,000 is gone in a scheme prosecutors call a classic mold of financial grifting — neither sophisticated nor, in hindsight, difficult to see through.
“Obviously these weren’t billionaires,” Allan Weissmann, a postal inspector and spokesman for the United States Postal Inspection Service, said of the parishioners. But he added: “It’s all relative. It means a lot to them. It’s their life savings in many cases, and they, too, are devastated.”
The authorities said that Mr. Rodriguez asked parishioners to invest in an electronics firm he represented, which he said wanted “a blessing for a blessing” by providing Jews and Christians with the opportunity to invest in his company, a criminal complaint charges.
A lawyer for Mr. Rodriguez, who is in jail pending a bail hearing, said he did nothing wrong. “There’s no question that he’ll plead not guilty,” the lawyer, Paul J. McAllister, said.
The church, at Audubon Avenue and 172nd Street, occupies a century-old building. It is just a few blocks from Yeshiva University, which says it lost $110 million by investing with Bernard L. Madoff, who stands accused of one of the largest financial frauds in history, a Ponzi scheme involving up to $50 billion.
One night this week a few dozen worshipers gathered for a regular service in the basement of El Camino. As a conga player, a keyboard player and a guitarist played in the background, the group sang a Spanish version of “Silent Night,” their hands outstretched, their palms up.
At the end of the service, the pastor, the Rev. Miguel Amadis, addressed the congregation.
“We’re going through a very hard time,” he said. “We have to stay united.”
At least three dozen people invested with Mr. Rodriguez, according to the complaint; the pastor said he and his family alone lost $300,000. All told, according to the complaint, members of the church gave Mr. Rodriguez about $1.1 million, but received back only about $450,000.
Mr. Rodriguez has been charged with one count of mail fraud. “Each of these investors has lost all or part of their investment,” Postal Inspector Eleanor Berry wrote in the complaint, referring to a group of 30 parishioners and their friends.
The complaint said Mr. Rodriguez began taking baptismal classes at the church in 2007, and was later baptized there. He told people that he worked with a company called C & E, and sold electronics to the church and some of its members.http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com
According to the complaint, he said his business sold wholesale electronics to large retailers like Best Buy and P. C. Richard & Son. http://34819louis0j0sheehan0esquire.wordpress.com He promised returns of 30 percent every two weeks, and kept his promise to initial investors, at least for a while. Those investors then brought in other family members until a number of them were hooked.
In one case described in the complaint, a church member gave Mr. Rodriguez about $3,000 in cash in June 2007. Two weeks later, Mr. Rodriguez paid the man about $900, followed by another $900 payment soon thereafter.
The victim told relatives and friends about the opportunity, the complaint says, and they gave Mr. Rodriguez a total of about $57,000. After the investor pressed Mr. Rodriguez last August about his investment, he was given “a loan” of $5,000.
Neither the investor nor his family and friends received any more money from Mr. Rodriguez, the complaint said.
One church member, Alexander Perez, said his family and friends had lost about $80,000.
“He came here telling us he did business with all these big electronics stores,” said Mr. Perez, 30, a construction worker from Washington Heights who has been a member of El Camino for seven years. “We didn’t think there was anything wrong, so we invested with him.”
“It hurts, trust me, it hurts,” Mr. Perez said.
Ana Vasquez, 44, an interior decorator, said she and a friend invested $10,000.
“He paid us at first to get more people interested,” she said. “He told us to find family and friends to invest. He told us that everyone who invested $5,000 would get a bonus of $10,000. To get enough money, a lot of us looked for more people to chip in.”
According to the complaint, retailers have told the authorities that they had no contract with Mr. Rodriguez or any firm he ran.
Mr. Rodriguez has a previous felony conviction for impersonating a United States immigration officer, the complaint says.
In court on Tuesday, Mr. Rodriguez’s lawyer, Mr. McAllister, blamed the church’s pastor, Mr. Amadis, for any money that was lost. Mr. Amadis, referring to Mr. Rodriguez, said, “He’s trying to say that I had something to do with it, but that’s just not true.” No charges have been filed against the pastor.
“He came to us like anyone else comes to the church,” Mr. Amadis said. “When I met this guy, he convinced me he was a true original Christian. Man, this guy could talk. He could convince anybody.” Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
